LATIN GRAMMAR

Latin Grammar is usually treated under three heads: 1. Words and Forms; 2. Syntax; 3. Prosody. Syntax treats of the function of words when joined together as parts of the sentence; Prosody of their arrangement in metrical composition.

PART FIRST

WORDS AND FORMS

THE ALPHABET

1. The Latin Alphabet is the same as the English (which is in fact borrowed from it) except that it does not contain J, U, and W.
NOTE 1.—The Latin alphabet was borrowed in very early times from a Greek alphabet (though not from that most familiar to us) and did not at first contain the letters G and Y. It consisted of capital letters only, and the small letters with which we are familiar did not come into general use until the close of the eighth century of our era.

NOTE 2.—The Latin names of the consonants were as follows:—B, be (pronounced bay); C, ce (pronounced kay); D, de (day); F, ef; G, ge (gay); H, ha; K, ka; L, el; M, em; N, en; P, pe (pay); Q, qu, (koo); R, er; S, es; T, te (tay); X, ix; Z, zeta (the Greek name, pronounced dzayta). The sound of each vowel was used as its name.

a. The character C originally meant G, a value always retained in the abbreviations C. (for Gāius) and Cn. (for Gnaeus).
NOTE.—In early Latin C came also to be used for K, and K disappeared except before a in a few words, as Kal. (Kalendae), Karthāgō. Thus there was no distinction in writing between the sounds of g and k. Later this defect was remedied by forming (from C) the new character G. This took the alphabetic place formerly occupied by Z, which had gone out of use. In Cicero's time (see N. D. iii. 93), Y (originally a form of V) and Z were introduced from the ordinary Greek alphabet to represent sounds in words derived from the Greek, and they were put at the end of the Latin alphabet.

b. I and V were used both as vowels and as consonants (See § 5).
NOTE.—V originally denoted the vowel sound u (oo), and F stood for the sound of our consonant w. When F acquired the value of our f, V came to be used for the sound of w as well as for the vowel u.
In this book i is used for both vowel and consonant i, u for vowel u, and v for consonant u:—iūs, vir, iuvenis. WORDS AND FORMS

Classification of Sounds

2. The simple Vowels are a, e, i, o, u, y. The Diphthongs are ae, au, ei, eu, oe, ui, and, in early Latin, ai, oi, ou. In the diphthongs both vowel sounds are heard, one following the other in the same syllable.

3. Consonants are either voiced (sonant) or voiceless (surd). Voiced consonants are pronounced with the same vocal murmur that is heard in vowels; voiceless consonants lack this murmur.
1. The voiced consonants are b, d, g, l, r, m, n, z, consonant i, v.
2. The voiceless consonants are p, t, c, (k, q), f, h, s, x.

4. Consonants are further classified as in the following table:

	LABIALS	DENTALS	PALATALS
Mutes: Voiced (mediae)	b	d	g
Voiceless (tenuēs)	p	t	c (k,q)
Aspirates	ph	th	ch
Nasals	m	n	n (before c, g, q)
Liquids		l, r
Fricatives (Spirants)	f¹	s, z
Sibilants		s, z
Semivowels	v		consonant i

Double consonants are x ( = cs) and z ( = dz); h is merely a breathing.
1. Mutes are pronounced by blocking entirely, for an instant, the passage of the breath through the mouth, and then allowing it to escape with an explosion (distinctly heard before a following vowel). Between the explosion and the vowel there may be a slight puff of breath (h), as in the Aspirates (ph, th, ch).²
2. Labials are pronounced with the lips, or lips and teeth.
3. Dentals (sometimes called Linguals) are pronounced with the tip of the tongue touching or approaching the upper front teeth.
4. Palatals are pronounced with a part of the upper surface of the tongue touching or approaching the palate.³
5. Fricatives (or Spirants) are consonants in which the breath passes continuously through the mouth with audible friction.
6. Nasals are like voiced mutes, except that the mouth remains closed and the breath passes through the nose. ORTHOGRAPHY

5. The vowels i and u serve as consonants when pronounced rapidly before a vowel so as to stand in the same syllable.⁴ Consonant i has the sound of English consonant y; consonant u (v) that of English consonant w. Consonant i and u (v) are sometimes called Semivowels.
NOTE 1.—The Latin alphabet did not distinguish between the vowel and consonant sounds of i and u, but used each letter (I and V) with a double value. In modern books i and u are often used for the vowel sounds, j and v for the consonant sounds; but in printing in capitals the J and U are avoided:—IVLIVS (Iūlius). The characters J and U are only slight modifications of the characters I and V. The ordinary English sounds of j and v did not exist in classical Latin, but consonant u perhaps approached English v in the pronunciation of some persons.

NOTE 2.—In the combinations qu, gu, and sometimes su, u seems to be the consonant (w). Thus, aqua, anguis, cōnsuētus (compare English quart, anguish, suave). In these combinations, however, u is reckoned neither as a vowel nor as a consonant.⁵

ORTHOGRAPHY

6. Latin spelling varied somewhat with the changes in the language and was never absolutely settled in all details. Thus, we find lubet, vortō, as earlier, and libet, vertō as later forms. Other variations are optumus and optimus, gerundus and gerendus. The spelling of the first century of our era, known chiefly from inscriptions, is tolerably uniform, and is commonly used in modern editions of the classics.
a. After v (consonant u), o was anciently used instead of u (voltus, servos), and this spelling was not entirely given up until the middle of the first century of our era.
b. The older quo became cu in the Augustan period; in the second century of our era the spelling quu established itself in some words:—

cum, older quom;⁶ equos, ecus later equus; sequontur, secuntur, later sequuntur; similarly exstinguont, exstingunt, later exstinguunt.

NOTE.—In most modern editions the spelling quu is adopted, except in cum.

c. Between consonant i and a preceding a, e, o, or u, an i was developed as a transient sound, thus producing a diphthong ai, ei, etc., before the consonant i. In such cases but one i was written: as, âiō (for †ai-iō), mâius (for †mai-ius), pêius (for †pei-ius). WORDS AND FORMS
d. Similarly in compounds of iaciō but one i was written (as, con-iciō, not con-iiciō); but the usual pronunciation probably showed consonant i followed by vowel i (see § 11.e).
NOTE.—Some variations are due to later changes in Latin itself, and these are not now recognized in classical texts.

1. Unaccented ti aud ci, when followed by a vowel, came to be pronounced alike; hence nūntiō was later spelled with a c and diciō with a t.
2. The sound of h was after a time lost and hence this letter was often omitted (as, arēna for harēna) or mistakenly written (as, humor for ūmor).
3. The diphthong ae early in the time of the Empire acquired the value of long open e (about like English e in there), and similarly oe after a time became a long close e (about like the English ey in they); aud so both were often confused in spelling with e: as, coena or caena for the correct form cēna.

Syllables

7. Every Latin word has as many syllables as it has vowels or diphthongs:—

a-ci-ē, mo-nē, fī-li-us, fe-rō-ci-tā-te.

a. In the division of words into syllables a single consonant (including consonant i and v) between two vowels is written and pronounced with the following vowel. Doubled consonants are separated:—

pa-ter, mī-li-tēs, in-iū-ri-a, dī-vi-dō; mit-tō, tol-lō.

NOTE 1.—Some extend the rule for single consonants to any consonant group (as sp, st, gn) that can begin a word. In this book, dīx-it, sax-um, etc. are preferred to dī-xit, sa-xum; the pronunciation was probably dīc-sit, sac-sum.

NOTE 2.—A syllable ending with a vowel or diphthong is called open: all others are called close. Thus in pa-ter the first syllable is open, the second close.

b. In compounds the parts are separated:—

ab-est, ob-lātus, dis-cernō, du-plex, dī-stō.

Pronunciation

8. The so-called Roman Pronunciation of Latin aims to represent approximately the pronunciation of classical times.

VOWELS: ā as in father;	ă as in idea.
ē as in eh? (prolonged), or a in date;	ĕ as eh? (clipped) or e in net.
ī as in machine;	ĭ as in holiest or sit.
ō as in holy;	ŏ as in obey.
ū as oo in boot;	ŭ as oo in foot.
y between u and i (French u or German ü).

DIPHTHONGS: ae like ay;	ei as in eight;	oe like oy in boy;
eu as eh'oo;	au like ow in now;	ui as oo'ee.

PRONUNCIATION AND QUANTITY Consonants are the same as in English, except that—

c and g are as in come, get, never as in city, gem.

s as in sea, lips, never as in ease.

Consonant i is like y in young; v (consonant u) like w in wing.

n in the combinations ns and nf probably indicates nasalization of the preceding vowel, which was also lengthened; and final m in an unaccented syllable probably had a similar nasalizing effect on the preceding vowel.

ph, th, ch, are properly like p, t, k, followed by h (which may, for convenience, be neglected); but ph probably became like (or nearly like) f soon after the classical period, and may be so pronounced to distinguish it from p.

z is as dz in adze.

bs is like ps; bt is like pt.

NOTE.—Latin is sometimes pronounced with the ordinary English sounds of the letters. The English pronunciation should be used in Roman names occurring in English (as, Julius Cæsar); and in familiar quotations, as, e pluribus unum; viva voce; vice versa; a fortiori; veni, vidi, vici, etc.

Quantity

9. The Quantity of a Vowel or a Syllable is the time occupied in pronouncing it. Two degrees of Quantity are recognized,— long and short.
a. In syllables, quantity is measured from the beginning of the vowel or diphthong to the end of the syllable.

10. Vowels are either long or short by nature, and are pronounced accordingly (§ 8).
a. A vowel before another vowel or h is short: as in vĭa, nĭhil.
b. A diphthong is long: as in āēdes, fōēdus. So, also, a vowel derived from a diphthong, as in exclūdō (from †ex-claudō).
c. A vowel formed by contraction is long: as in nīl (from nihil).
d. A vowel before ns, nf, gn, is long: as in cōnstāns, īnferō, māgnus.
NOTE.—But the quantity of the vowel before gn is not certain in all cases.

e. A vowel before nd, nt, is regularly short: as in amandus, amant. In this book all vowels known to be long are marked (ā, ē, etc.), and short vowels are left unmarked (a, e, etc.). Vowels marked with both signs at once (ā̆, ē̆, etc.) occur sometimes as long and sometimes as short.
NOTE.—The Romans sometimes marked vowel length by a stroke above the letter (called an apex), as, Á; and sometimes the vowel was doubled to indicate length. An I made higher than the other letters was occasionally used for ī. But none of these devices came into general use.
WORDS AND FORMS

11. The Quantity of the Syllable is important for the position of the accent and in versification.
a. A syllable containing a long vowel or a diphthong is said to be long by nature: as, mā-ter, aes, au-la.
b. A syllable containing a short vowel followed by two consonants (except a mute before l or r) or by a double consonant (x, z) is said to be long by position, but the vowel is pronounced short: as, est, ter-ra, sax-um, Me-zen-tius.
NOTE.—When a consonant is doubled the pronunciation should show this distinctly. Thus in mit-tō both t's should be pronounced as in out-talk (not merely a single t as in better.)

c. A syllable containing a short vowel followed by a mute before l or r is properly short, but may be used as long in verse. Such a syllable is said to be common.
NOTE 1.—In syllables long by position, but having a short vowel, the length is partly due to the first of the consonants, which stands in the same syllable with the vowel. In syllables of ``common'' quantity (as the first syllable of patrem) the ordinary pronunciation was pa-trem, but in verse pat-rem was allowed so that the syllable could become long.

NOTE 2.—In final syllables ending with a consonant, and containing a short vowel, the quantity in verse is determined by the following word: if this begins with a vowel the final consonant is joined to it in pronunciation; if it begins with a consonant the syllable is long by position.

NOTE 3.—In rules for quantity h is not counted as a consonant, nor is the apparently consonental u in qu, gu, su. (see § 5, N. 2).

d. A syllable whose vowel is a, e, o, or u, followed by consonant i, is long whether the vowel itself is long or short: as, â-iō, mâ-ior, pê-ius. In such cases the length of the syllable is indicated in this book by a circumflex on the vowel.
NOTE.—The length of a syllable before consonant i is due to a transitional sound (vowel i) which forms a diphthong with the preceding vowel: as, â-iō (for †ai-iō), mâ-ior (for mai-ior). See § 6.c.

e. In some compounds of iaciō (as, in-iciō) the consonant i of the simple verb was probably pronounced (though not written). Thus the first syllable was long by position: as, in-iciō (for in-iiciō). See § 6.d. In such cases the length of the syllable is not indicated in this book by a circumflex on the vowel.
f. When a syllable is long by position the quantity of the vowel is not always determinable. The vowel should be pronounced short unless it is known to be long.
NOTE.—The quantity of a vowel under these circumstances is said to be hidden. It is often determined with a greater or less degree of certainty by inscriptional evidence (see § 10. N.) or by other means. In this book, the quantity of all such vowels known to be long is marked.
ACCENT

Accent

12. Words of two syllables are accented on the first syllable: as, Rō ma, fi dēs, tan gō. Words of more than two syllables are accented on the Penult⁷ if that is long (as, amī cus, monē tur, contin git); otherwise on the Antepenult (as, do mĭnus, a lăcris, dissociā bĭlis).
a. When an enclitic is joined to a word, the accent falls on the syllable next before the enclitic, whether long or short: as, dĕă que, ămārĕ ve, tĭbĭ ne, ită que (and … so), as distinguished from i tăque (therefore). So (according to some) ex inde, ec quando, etc. Exceptions: 1. Certain apparent compounds of faciō retain the accent of the simple verb, as, benefă cit, calefă cit (see § 266. a).
NOTE.—These were not true compounds, but phrases.

2. In the second declension the genitive and vocative of nouns in -ius and the genitive of those in -ium retain the accent of the nominative: as, Cornē lī, Vergi lī, inge nī (see § 49. c).
3. Certain words which have lost a final vowel retain the accent of the complete words: as, illī c for illī ce, prōdū c for prōdūce, sati n for sati sne.

Combinations

13. In some cases adjacent words, being pronounced together, are written as one:—

ūnusquisque (ūnus quisque), sīquis (sī quis), quārē (quā rē), quamobrem (quam ob rem; cf. quās ob rēs), rēspūblica (rēs pūblica), iūsiūrandum (iūs iūrandum), paterfamiliās (pater familiās).

NOTE.—Sometimes a slight change in pronunciation resulted, as, especially in the old poets, before est in homōst (homō est), perīculumst (perīculum est), ausust (ausus est), quālist (quālis est). Similarly there occur vīn, ścīń for vīsne, scīsne, sīs (sī vīs), sōdēs (sī audēs), sūltis (sī vultis). Compare in English somebody, to breakfast; he's, I've, thou'rt.

Phoenetic Changes

14. Latin, the language of the ancient Romans, was properly, as its name implies, the language spoken in the plain of Latium, lying south of the Tiber, which was the first territory occupied and governed by the Romans. It is a descendent of an early form of speech commonly called Indo-European (by some Indo-Germanic), from which are also descended most of the important languages now in use in Europe, including among others English, German, the Slavic and the Celtic languages, and further some now or formerly spoken in Asia, as Sanskrit, Persian, Armenian. Greek likewise WORDS AND FORMS belongs to the same family. The Romance (or Romanic) languages, of which the most important are Italian, French, Provençal, Spanish, Portuguese, and Roumanian, are modern descendants of spoken Latin. The earliest known forms of Latin are preserved in a few inscriptions. These increase in number as we approach the time when the language began to be used in literature; that is, about B.C. 250. It is the comparatively stable language of the classical period (B.C. 80–A.D. 14) that is ordinarily meant when we speak of Latin, and it is mainly this that is described in this book.

15. Among the main features in the changes of Latin from the earliest stages of the language as we know it up to the forms of classical Latin may be mentioned the following:—

Vowel Changes

1. The old diphthong ai became the classical ae (aedīlis for old aidīlis), old oi became oe or ū (ūnus for old oinos), and old ou became ū (dūcō for old doucō).
2. In compound verbs the vowel a of the simple verb often appears as i or e, and ae similarly appears as ī:—

faciō, factum, but cōnficiō, cōnfectum; caedō, but occīdo, and similarly cecīdī, perfect of caedō (cf. cadō, occidō; cecidī, perfect of cadō).

NOTE.—This change is commonly ascribed to an accentuation on the first syllable, which seems to have been the rule in Latin before the rule given above (see § 12) became established. The original Indo-European accent, however, was not limited by either of these principles; it was probably a musical accent so-called, consisting in a change of pitch, and not merely in a more forcible utterance of the accented syllable.

3. Two vowels coming together are often contracted:—

cōgō for †co-agō; prōmō for †pro-emō; nīl for nihil; dēbeō for †dē-hībeō (†dē-habeō).

Consonant Changes

4. An old s regularly became r between two vowels (rhotacism), passing first through the sound of (English) z:—

eram (cf. est); generis, genitive of genus.⁸

NOTE.—Final s sometimes became r by analogy: as, honor (older honōs), from the analogy of honōris, etc.

5. A dental (t, d) often became s, especially when standing next to t, d, or s: as, equestris for †equettris, cāsus for †cadtus (cf. 6, below).
6. Many instances of assimilation, partial or complete, are found:—

cessī for †ced-sī; summus for †supmus; scrīptus for scrībtus (b unvoicing to p before the voiceless t); and in compound verbs (see § 16).

VOWEL VARIATIONS Dissimilation, the opposite kind of change, prevented in some cases the repetition of the same sound in successive syllables:— Thus, parīlia for palīlia (from Palēs); merīdiēs for †medīdiēs; nātūrālis with suffix -ālis (after r), but populāris with -āris (after l).
7. Final s was in early Latin not always pronounced: as, plēnu(s) fidēī.
NOTE.—Traces of this pronunciation existed in Cicero's time. He speaks of the omission of a final s before a word beginning with a consonant as ``countrified'' (subrūsticum).

8. A final consonant often disappears: as, virgō for †virgōn; lac for †lact; cor for †cord.
9. G, c, and h unite with a following s to form x: as, rēx for †rēgs; dux for †ducs; trāxī for †trahsī.⁹
10. G and h before t become c: as, rēctum for †regtum; āctum for †agtum; trāctum for †trahtum¹⁰
11. Between m and s or m and t, a p is often developed: as, sūmpsī for †sūmsī; ēmptum for †ēmtum.
16. In compounds with prepositions the final consonant in the preposition was often assimilated to the following consonant, but usage varied considerably. There is good authority for many complete or partial assimilations; as, for ad, acc-, agg-, app-, att-, instead of adc-, adg-, etc. Before a labial consonant we find com- (comb-, comp-, comm-), but con- is the form before c, d, f, g, cons. i, q, s, t, cons. v; we find conl- or coll-, conr- or corr-; cō- in cōnectō, cōnīveō, cōnītor, cōnūbium. In usually changes to im- before p, b, m. Ob and sub may assimilate b to a following c, f, g, or p; before s and t the pronunciation of prepositions ending in b doubtless had p; surr-, summ-, occur for subr-, subm-. The s of dis becomes r before a vowel and is assimilated to a following f; sometimes this prefix appears as dī-. Instaed of ex we find ef- before f (also ecf-). The d of red and sēd is generally lost before a consonant. The preposition is better left unchanged in most other cases.

Vowel Variations.

17. The parent language showed great variation in the vowel sounds of kindred words.¹¹
a. This variation is often called by the German name Ablaut. It has left considerable traces in the forms of Latin words, appearing sometimes as a difference of quantity in the same vowel (as, u, ū; e, ē), sometimes as a difference in the vowel itself (as, e, o; i, ae):¹²—

tegō, I cover, toga, a robe; pendō, I weigh, pondus, weight; fidēs, faith, fīdus, faithful, foedus, a treaty; miser, wretched, maestus, sad; dare, to give, dōnum, a gift; regō, I rule, rēx, a king; dux, a leader, dūcō (for older doucō), I lead. Compare English drive, drove (drave), driven; bind, bound, band; sing, sang, sung; etc.

WORDS AND FORMS

Kindred Forms

18. Both Latin and English have gone through a series of phonetic changes, different in the two languages, but following definite laws in each. Hence both preserve traces of the older speech in some features of the vowel system, and both show certain correspondences in consonants in words which each language has inherited from the old common stock. Only a few of these correspondences can be mentioned here.

19. The most important correspondences in consonants between Latin and English, in cognate words, Inay be seen in the following table:—¹³

LATIN	ENGLISH
p: pater	f: father, earlier fader¹⁴
f from bh: ferō, frāter	b: to bear, brother
b l̀̀̀̀ubet, libet	v, f: love, lief
t: tū, tenuis	th: thou, thin¹⁵
d: duo, dent-	t: two, tooth
f from dh: faciō	d: do
d m̀̀̀̀edius	d: mid
b r̀̀̀̀uber	d: red
c: cord-, cornū	h: heart, horn
qu: quod	wh: what
g: genus, gustus	c, k, ch: kin, choose
h (from gh): hortus, haedus	y, g: yard, goat
cons. i: iugum	y: yoke
v: ventus, ovis	w: wind, ewe
v from gv: vivus (for †gvīvos),	qu, c, k: quick, come
veniō (for †gvemiō).

NOTE 1.—Sometimes a consonant lost in Latin is still represented in English: as, niv- (for †sniv-), Eng. snow; ānser (for †hānser), Eng. goose.

NOTE 2.—From these cases of kindred words in Latin and English must be carefully distinguished those cases in which the Latin word has been taken into English either directly or through some one of the modern descendants of Latin, especially French. Thus faciō is kindred with Eng. do, but from the Latin participle (factum) of this verb comes Eng. fact, and from the French descendant (fait) of factum comes Eng. feat.
THE PARTS OF SPEECH

THE PARTS OF SPEECH

20. Words are divided into eight Parts of Speech: Nouns, Adjectives (including Participles), Pronouns, Verbs, Adverbs, Prepositions, Conjunctions, and Interjections.
a. A Noun is the name of a person, place, thing, or idea: as, Caesar; Roma, Rome; domus, a house; virtus, virtue. Names of particular persons and places are called Proper Nouns; other nouns are called Common.
NOTE.—An Abstract Noun is the name of a quality or idea: as, audācia, boldness; senectus, old age. A Collective Noun is the name of a group, class, or the like: as, turba, crowd; exercitus, army.

b. An Adjective is a word that attributes a quality: as, bonus, good; fortis, brave, strong.
NOTE 1.—A Participle is a word that attributes quality like an adjective, but, being derived from a verb, retains in some degree the power of the verb to assert: as,— Caesar cōnsul creātus, Caesar having been elected consul.

NOTE 2.—Etymologically there is no difference between a noun and an adjective, both being formed alike. So, too, all names originally attribute quality, and any common name can still be so used. Thus, King William distinguishes this William from other Williams, by the attribute of royalty expressed in the name king.

c. A Pronoun is a word used to distinguish a person, place, thing, or idea without either naming or describing it: as, is, he; quī, who; nos, we. Nouns and pronouns are often called Substantives.
d. A Verb is a word which is capable of asserting something: as, sum, I am; amat, he loves.
NOTE.—In all modern speech the verb is usually the only word that asserts anything, and a verb is therefore supposed to be necessary to complete an assertion. Strictly, however, any adjective or noun may, by attributing a quality or giving a name, make a complete assertion. In the infancy of language there could have been no other means of asserting, as the verb is of comparatively late development.

e. An Adverb is a word used to express the time, place, or manner of an assertion or attribute: as, splendide mendax, gloriously false; hodie natus est, he was born to-day.
NOTE.—These same functions are often performed by cases (see §§ 214–217) of nouns, pronouns, and adjectives, and by phrases or sentences. In fact, all adverbs were originally cases or phrases, but have become specialized by use.

f. A Preposition is a word which shows the relation between a noun or pronoun and some other word or words in the same sentence: as, per agros it, he goes over the fields; e plūribus unum, one out of many.
NOTE.—Most prepositions are specialized adverbs (cf. § 219). The relations expressed by prepositions were earlier expressed by case-endings.
WORDS AND FORMS
g. A Conjunction is a word which connects words, or groups of words, without affecting their grammatical relations: as, et, and; sed, but.
NOTE.—Some adverbs are also used as connectives. These are called Adverbial Conjunctions or Conjunctive (Relative) Adverbs: as, ubi, where; dōnec, until.

h. Interjections are mere exclamations and are not strictly to be classed as parts of speech. Thus,—heus, halloo! ō, oh!
NOTE.—Interjections sometimes express an emotion which affects a person or thing mentioned, and so have a grammatical connection like other words: as, vae victīs, woe to the conquered (alas for the conquered)!

INFLECTION

21. Latin is an inflected language. Inflection is a change made in the form of a word to show its grammatical relations.
a. Inflectional changes sometimes take place in the body of a word, or at the beginning, but oftener in its termination:—

zstrutvōx, a voice; vōcis, of a voice; vocō, I call; vocat, he calls; vocet, let him call; vocāvit, he has called; tangit, he touches; tetigit, he touched.

b. Terminations of inflection had originally independent meanings which are now obscured. They correspond nearly to the use of prepositions, auxiliaries, and personal pronouns in English. Thus, in vocat, the termination is equivalent to he or she; in vōcis, to the preposition of; and in vocet the change of vowel signifies a change of mood.
c. Inflectional changes in the body of a verb usually denote relations of tense or mood, and often correspond to the use of auxiliary verbs in English:—

frangit, he breaks or is breaking; frēgit, he broke or has broken; mordet, he bites; momordit, he bit.¹⁶

22. The inflection of Nouns, Adjectives, Pronouns, and Participles to denote gender, number, and case is called Declension, and these parts of speech are said to be declined. The inflection of Verbs to denote voice, mood, tense, number, and person is called Conjugation, and the verb is said to be conjugated.
NOTE.—Adjectives are often said to have inflections of comparison. These are, however, properly stem-formations made by derivation (§ 124, footnote).
ROOT, STEM, AND BASE

23. Adverbs, Prepositions, Conjunctions, and Interjections are not inflected and are called Particles.
NOTE.—The term Particle is sometimes limited to such words as num, -ne, an (interrogative), nōn, nē (negative), sī (conditional), etc., which are used simply to indicate the form or construction of a sentence.

Root, Stem, and Base

24. The body of a word, to which the terminations are attached, is called the Stem. The Stem contains the idea of the word without relations; but, except in the first part of a compound (as, arti-fex, artificer), it cannot ordinarily be used without some termination to express them.¹⁷ Thus the stem vōc- denotes voice; with -s added it becomes vōx, a voice or the voice, as the subject or agent of an action; with -is it becomes vōcis, and signifies of a voice.
NOTE.—The stem is in many forms so united with the termination that a comparison with other forms is necessary to determine it.

25. A Root is the simplest form attainable by analysis of a word into its component parts. Such a form contains the main idea of the word in a very general sense, and is common also to other words either in the same language or in kindred languages.¹⁸ Thus the root of the stem vōc- is VOC, which does not mean to call, or I call, or calling, but merely expresses vaguely the idea of calling, and cannot be used as a part of speech without terminations. With ā- it becomes vocā-, the stem of vocāre (to call); with āv- it is the stem of vocāvit (he called); with āto- it becomes the stem of vocātus (called); with ātiōn- it becomes the stem of vocātiōnis (of a calling). With its vowel lengthened it becomes the stem of vōx, vōc-is (a voice: that by which we call). This stem vōc-, with -ālis added, means belonging to a voice; with -ŭla, a little voice.
NOTE.—In inflected languages, words are built up from Roots, which at a very early time were used alone to express ideas, as is now done in Chinese. Roots are modified into Stems, which, by inflection, become fully formed words. The process by which roots are modified, in the various forms of derivatives and compounds, is called Stem-building. The whole of this process is originally one of composition, by which significant endings are added one after another to forms capable of pronunciation and conveying a meaning.
Roots had long ceased to be recognized as such before the Latin existed as a separate language. Consequently the forms which we assume as Latin roots never really existed in Latin, but are the representatives of forms used earlier. WORDS AND FORMS

26. The Stem may be the same as the root: as in duc-is, of a leader, fer-t, he bears; but it is more frequently formed from the root—
1. By changing or lengthening its vowel: as in scob-s, sawdust (SCAB, shave); rēg-is, of a king (REG, direct); vōc-is, of a voice (VOC, call).
2. By the addition of a simple suffix (originally another root): as in fugā-, stem of fuga, flight (FUG +ā-); regi-s, you rule (REG +stem-ending e/_o-); sini-t, he allows (SI +ne/_o-).¹⁹
3. By two or more of these methods: as in dūci-t, he leads (DUC + stem-ending e/_o-).
4. By derivation and composition, following the laws of development peculiar to the language. (See §§ 227 ff.)

27. The Base is that part of a word which is unchanged in inflection: as, serv- in servus; mens- in mensa; īgn- in īgnis.
a. The Base and the Stem are often identical, as in many consonant stems of nouns (as, rēg- in rēg-is). If, however, the stem ends in a vowel, the latter does not appear in the base, but is variously combined with the inflectional termination. Thus the stem of servus is servo-; that of mēnsa, mēnsā-; that of īgnis, īgni-.

28. Inflectional terminations are variously modified by combination with the final vowel or consonant of the Stem, and thus the various forms of Declension and Conjugation (see §§ 36, 164) developed.

GENDER

29. The Genders distinguished in Latin are three: Masculine, Feminine, and Neuter.

30. The gender of Latin nouns is either natural or grammatical.
a. Natural Gender is distinction as to the sex of the object denoted: as, puer (M.), boy; puella (F.), girl; rēx (M.), king; rēgīna (F.), queen.
NOTE 1.—Many nouns have both a masculine and a feminine form to distinguish sex: as, cervus, cerva, stag, doe; cliēns, clienta, client; victor, victrīx, conqueror.
Many designations of persons (as nauta, sailor) usually though not necessarily male are always treated as masculine. Similarly names of tribes and peoples are masculine: as, Rōmānī, the Romans; Persae, the Persians.
NOTE 2.—A few neuter nouns are used to designate persons as belonging to a class: as, mancipium tuum, your slave (your chattel).
Many pet names of girls and boys are neuter in form: as, Paegnium, Glycerium.
NOTE 3.—Names of classes or collections of persons may be of any gender: as, excercitus (M.), aciēs (F.), and agmen (N.), army; operae (F. plur.), workmen; cōpiae, (F. plur.), troops; senātus (M.), senate; cohors (F.), cohort; concilium (N.), council.
GENERAL RULES OF GENDER
b. Grammatical Gender is a formal distinction as to sex where no actual sex exists in the object. It is shown by the form of the adjective joined with the noun: as, lapis māgnus (M.), a great stone; manus mea (F.), my hand.

General Rules of Gender

31. Names of Male beings, and of Rivers, Winds, Months, and Mountains, are masculine:—

pater, father; Iūlius, Julius; Tiberis, the Tiber; auster, south wind; Iānuārius, January; Apennīnus, the Apennines.

NOTE.—Names of Months are properly adjectives, the masculine noun mēnsis, month, being understood: as, Iānuārius, January.

a. A few names of Rivers ending in -a (as, Allia), with the Greek names Lēthē and Styx, are feminine; others are variable or uncertain.
b. Some names of Mountains are feminine or neuter, taking the gender of their termination: as, Alpēs (F.), the Alps; Sōracte (N.).

32. Names of Female beings, of Cities, Countries, Plants, Trees, and Gems, of many Animals (especially Birds), and of most abstract Qualities, are feminine:—

māter, mother; Iūlia, Julia; Rōma, Rome; Ītalia, Italy; rosa, rose; pīnus, pine; sapphīrus, sapphire; anas, duck; vēritās, truth.

a. Some names of Towns and Countries are masculine: as, Sulmō, Gabiī (plur.); or neuter, as, Tarentum, Illyricum.
b. A few names of Plants and Gems follow the gender of their termination: as, centaurēum (N.), centaury; acanthus (M.), bearsfoot; opalus (M.) opal.
NOTE.—The gender of most of the above may also be recognized by the terminations, according to the rules given under the several declensions. The names of Roman women were usually feminine adjectives denoting their gēns or house (see § 108. b).

33. Indeclinable nouns, infinitives, terms or phrases used as nouns, and words quoted merely for their form, are neuter:–

fas, right; nihil, nothing; gummī, gum; scīre tuum, your knowledge (to know); trīste valē, a sad farewell; hōc ipsum diū, this very ``long.''

34. Many nouns may be either masculine or feminine, according to the sex of the object. These are said to be of Common Gender: as, exsul, exile; bōs, ox or cow; parēns, parent.
NOTE.—Several names of animals have a grammatical gender, independent of sex. These are called epicene. Thus lepus, hare, is always masculine, and vulpēs, fox, is always feminine.
DECLENSION OF NOUNS

NUMBER AND CASE

35. Nouns, Pronouns, Adjectives, and Participles are declined in two Numbers, singular and plural; and in six Cases, nominative, genitive, dative, accusative, ablative, vocative.
a. The Nominative is the case of the Subject of a sentence.
b. The Genitive may generally be translated by the English Possessive, or by the Objective with the preposition of.
c. The Dative is the case of the Indirect Object (§ 274). It may usually be translated by the Objective with the preposition to or for.
d. The Accusative is the case of the Direct Object of a verb. (§ 274). It is also used with many of the prepositions.
e. The Ablative may usually be translated by the Objective with from, by, with, in, or at. It is often used with prepositions.
f. The Vocative is the case of Direct Address.
g. All the cases, except the nominative and vocative, are used as object-cases; and are cometimes called Oblique Cases (cāsūs oblīquī).
h. In names of towns and a few other words appear traces of another case (the Locative), denoting the place where: as, Rōmae, at Rome; rūrī, in the country.
NOTE.—Still another case, the Instrumental, appears in a few adverbs (§ 215.4).

DECLENSION OF NOUNS

36. Declension is produced by adding terminations originally significant to different forms of stems, vowel or consonant. The various phonetic corruptions in the language have given rise to the several declentions. Most of the case-endings, as given in Latin, contain also the final letter of the stem. Adjectives are, in general, declined like nouns, and are etymologically to be classed with them; but they have several peculiarities of inflection (see § 109 ff.).

37. Nouns are inflected in five Declensions, distinguished by the final letter (characteristic) of the Stem, and by the case-ending of the Genitive Singular:

Decl.	1	CHARACTERISTIC	ā		GEN. SING.	ae
	2		ŏ			ī
	3		ĭ	or a Consonant		ĭs
	4		ŭ			ūs
	5		ē			ēī

a. The Stem of a noun may be found, if a consonant stem, by omitting the case-ending; if a vowel stem, by substituting for the case-ending the characteristic vowel. CASE-ENDINGS OF THE FIVE DECLENSIONS

38. The following are General Rules of Declension:—
a. The Vocative is always the same as the nominative, except in the singular of nouns and adjectives in -us of the second declension, which have -e in the vocative. It is not included in the paradigms, unless it differs from teh nominative.
b. In neuters the Nominative and Accusative are always alike, and in the plural end in -ă.
c. The Accusative singular of all masculines and feminines ends in -m; the Accusative plural in -s.
d. In the last three declensions (and in a few cases in the others) the Dative singular ends in -ī.
e. The Dative and Ablative plural are always alike.
f. The Genitive plural always ends in -um.
g. Final -i, -o, -u of inflection are always long; final -a is short, except in the Ablative singular of the first declension; final -e is long in the first and fifth declensions, short in the second and third. Final -is and -us are long in plural cases.

Case-Endings of the Five Declensions

39. The regular Case-endings of the several declensions are the following:—²⁰ 4mm

	DECL. I	DECL. II		DECL. III		DECL. IV		DECL. V
SINGULAR	F.	M.	N.	M.,F.	N.	M.	N.	F.
NOM.	-a	-us	-um	-s		-us	-ū	-ēs
		—		(modified stem)
GEN.	-ae	-ī		-is		-ūs		-ēī (-ē)
DAT.	-ae	-ō		-ī		-uī (-ū)	-ū	-ēī (-ē)
ACC.	-am	-um	-um	-em (-im)	(like nom.)	-um	-ū	-em
ABL.	-ā	-ō		-e (-ī)		-ū		-ē
VOC.	-a	-e	-um	(like nom.)		-us	-ū	-ēs
PLURAL N. V.	-ae	-ī	-a	-es	-a, -ia	-ūs	-ūa	-ēs
GEN.	-ārum	-ōrum		-um, -ium		-uum		-ērum
D. AB.	-īs	-īs		-ibus		-ibus (-ubus)		-ēbus
ACC.	-ās	-ōs	-a	-ēs (-īs)	-a, -ia	-ūs	-ua	-ēs

DECLENSION OF NOUNS

FIRST DECLENSION (ā-stems)

40. The Stem of nouns of the First Declension ends in ā-. The Nonimative ending is -a (the stem-vowel shortened), except in Greek nouns.

41. Latin nouns of the First Declension are thus declined:—

stella, F., star

STEM stellā-

		SINGULAR	CASE-ENDINGS
NOM.	stella	a star	-a
GEN.	stellae	of a star	-ae
DAT.	stellae	to or for a star	-ae
ACC.	stellam	a star	-am
ABL.	stellā	with, from, by, etc., a star	-ā
		PLURAL
NOM.	stellae	stars	-ae
GEN.	stellārum	of stars	-ārum
DAT.	stellīs	to or for stars	-īs
ACC.	stellās	stars	-ās
ABL.	stellīs	with, from, by, etc., stars	-īs

a. The Latin has no article; hence stella may mean a star, the star, or simply star.

Gender in the First Declension

42. Nouns of the first declension are Feminine.

Exceptions:

Nouns masculine from their signification: as, nauta, sailor. So a few family or personal names: as, Mūrēna, Dolābella, Scaevola²¹; also , Hadria, the Adriatic.

Case-Forms in the First Declension

43. a. The genitive singular anciently ended in -āī (disyllabic), which is occasionally found: as, aulāī. The same ending sometimes occurs in the dative, but only as a diphthong. FIRST DECLENSION (Ā-STEMS)
b. An old genitive in -ās is preserved in the word familiās, often used in the combinations pater (māter, fīlius, fīlia) familiās, father, etc., of a family (plur. patrēs familiās or familiārum.
c. The Locative form for the singular ends in -ae; for the plural in -īs (cf. § 80, footnote).
d. The genitive plural is sometimes found in -um instead of ārum, especially in Greek patronymics, as, Aeneadum, sons of Æneas, and in compounds with -cŏla and -gĕna, signifying dwelling and descent: as, caelicolum, celestials; Trōiugenum, sons of Troy; so also in the Greek nouns amphora and drachma.
e. The dative and ablative plural of dea, goddess, fīlia, daughter, end in an older form -ābus (deābus, fīliābus) to distinguish them from the corresponding cases of deus, god, and fīlius, son (deīs, fīliīs). So rarely with other words, as, līberta, freed-woman; mūla, she-mule; equa, mare. But, except when the two sexes are mentioned together (as in formulas, documents, etc.), the form in -īs is preferred in all but dea and fīlia.
NOTE 1.—The old ending of the ablative singular (-ād) is sometimes retained in early Latin: as, praidād, booty (later, praedā).

NOTE 2.—In the dative and ablative plural -eis for -īs is sometimes found, and -iīs (as in taeniīs) is occasionally contracted to -īs (taenīs); so regularly in words in -âia (as, Bâīs from Bâiae).

Greek Nouns of the First Declension

44. Many nouns of the First Declension borrowed from the Greek are entirely Latinized (as, aula, court); but others retain traces of their Greek case-forms in the singular.

	Electra, F.	synopsis, F.	art of music, F.
NOM.	Ēlectra (-ā)	epitomē	mūsica (ē)
GEN.	Ēlectrae	epitomēs	mūsicae (ēs)
DAT.	Ēlectrae	epitomae	mūsicae
ACC.	Ēlectram (-ān)	epitomēn	mūsicam (ēn)
ABL.	Ēlectrā	epitomē	mūsicā (ē)

	Andromache, F.	Æneas, M.	Persian, M.
NOM.	Andromachē (-a)	Aenēās	Persēs (-a)
GEN.	Andromachēs (-ae)	Aenēae	Persae
DAT.	Andromachae	Aenēae	Persae
ACC.	Andromachēn (-am)	Aenēān (-am)	Persēn (ām)
ABL.	Andromachē (-ā)	Aenēā	Persē (ā)
VOC.	Andromachē (-a)	Aenēā (-a)	Persā

DECLENSION OF NOUNS

	Anchises, M.	son of Æneas, M.	comet, M.
NOM.	Anchīsēs	Aeneadēs (-a)	comētēs (-a)
GEN.	Anchīsae	Aeneadae	comētae
DAT.	Anchīsae	Aeneadae	comētae
ACC.	Anchīsēn (-am)	Aeneadēn	comētēn (ām)
ABL.	Anchīsē (-ā)	Aeneadē (-ā)	comētā (ē)
VOC.	Anchīsē (-ā, -a)	Aeneadē (-a)	comēta

NONOTE are (besides proper names) about thirty-five of these words, several being names of plants or arts: as, crambē, cabbage; mūsicē, music. Most have also regular Latin forms: as, comēta; but the nominative sometimes has the a long.
a. Greek forms are found only in the singular; the plural, when it occurs, is regular; as, comētae, -ārum, etc.
b. Many Greek nouns vary between the first, the second, and the third declensions: as, Boōtae (genitive of Boōtēs, -is), Thūcȳdidās (accusative plural of Thūcȳdidēs, -is). See § 52. a and § 81.
NOTE.—The Greek accusative Scīpiadam, from Scīpiadēs, descendent of the Scipios, is found in Horace.

SECOND DECLENSION (o-STEMS)

45. The Stem of nouns in the Second Declension ends in ŏ-: as, viro- (stem of vir, man), servo- (stem of servus or servos, slave), bello- (stem of bellum, war).
a. The Nominative is formed from the stem by adding s in masculines and feminines, and m in neuters, the vowel ŏ being weakened to ŭ (see §§ 6. a, 46. N. ^1).
b. In most nouns whose stem ends in rŏ- the s is not added in the Nominative, but o is lost, and e intrudes before r,²² if not already present: as, ager, stem agrŏ-²³; cf. puer, stem puero-.
c. The stem-vowel ŏ has a variant form ĕ,²⁴ which is preserved in the Latin vocative singular of nouns in -us: as, servĕ, vocative of servus, slave.
NOTE.—In composition this ĕ appears as ĭ. This,—belli-ger, warlike (from bello/_e-, stem of bellum, war).

46. Nouns of the Second Declension in -us (os) and -um (-om) are thus declined:— SECOND DECLENSION (Ō-STEMS)

	-.5pc servus, M., slave		-1.5pc bellum, N., war		-1pc Pompêīus, M., Pompey
	STEM servo-		-.75pc STEM bello-		-.5pc STEM Pompêio-
SINGULAR		CASE-ENDINGS		CASE-ENDINGS
NOM.	servus (-os)	-us (-os)	bellum	-um	Pompêius
GEN.	servī	-ī	bellī	-ī	Pompêī
DAT.	servō	-ō	bellō	-ō	Pompêiō
ACC.	servum (-om)	-um (-ōm)	bellum	-um	Pompêium
ABL.	servō	-ō	bellō	-ō	Pompêiō
VOC.	serve	-e	bellum	-um	Pompêī (-ei)
PLURAL NOM.	servī	-ī	bella	-a	Pompêī
GEN.	servōrum	-ōrum	bellōrum	-ōrum	Pompêiōrum
DAT.	servīs	-īs	bellīs	-īs	Pompêīs
ACC.	servōs	-ōs	bella	-a	Pompêiōs
ABL.	servīs	-īs	bellīs	-īs	Pompêīs

NOTE 1.—The earlier forms for nominative and accusative were -os, -om, and these were always retained after u and v up to the end of the Republic. The terminations s and m are sometimes omitted in inscriptions: as, Cornēlio for Cornēlios, Cornēliom.

NOTE 2.—Stems in quo-, like equo-, change qu to c before u. Thus,—ecus (earlier equos), equī, equō, ecum (earlier equom), eque. Modern editions disregard this principle.

47. Nouns of the Second Declension in -er and -ir are thus declined:—

	puer, M., boy	ager, M., field	vir, M., man
	STEM puero-	STEM agro-	STEM viro-
		SINGULAR		CASE-ENDINGS
NOM.	puer	ager	vir	—
GEN.	puerī	agrī	virī	-ī
DAT.	puerō	agrō	virō	-ō
ACC.	puerum	agrum	virum	-um
ABL.	puerō	agrō	virō	-ō
		PLURAL
NOM.	puerī	agrī	virī	-ī
GEN.	puerōrum	agrōrum	virōrum	-ōrum
DAT.	puerīs	agrīs	virīs	-īs
ACC.	puerōs	agrōs	virōs	-ōs
ABL.	puerīs	agrīs	virīs	-īs

NOTE.—When e belongs to the stem, as in puer, it is retained throughout; otherwise it appears only in the nominative and vocative singular, as in ager.
DECLENSION OF NOUNS

Gender in the Second Declension

48. Nouns ending in -us (-os), -er, -ir, are Masculine; those ending in -um (-om) are Neuter.

Exceptions:

Names of countries and towns in -us (-os) are Feminine: as, Aegyptus, Corinthus. Also many names of plants and gems, with the following: alvus, belly; carbasus, linen (pl. carbasa, sails, N.); colus, distaff; humus, ground; vannus, winnowing-shovel. NONOTE Greek nouns retain their original gender; as, arctus (F.), the Polar Bear; methodus (F.), method.
a. The following in -us are Neuter; their accusative (as with all neuters) is the same as the nominative: pelagus, sea; vīrus, poison; vulgus (rarely M.), the crowd. They are not found in the plural, except pelagus, which has a rare nominative and accusative plural pelagē.
NOTE.—The nominative plural neuter cētē, sea monsters, occurs; the nominative singular cētus occurs in Vitruvius.

Case-Forms in the Second Declension

49. a. The Locative form of this declension ends for the singular in -ī: as, humī, on the ground; Corinthī, at Corinth; for the plural, in -īs: as, Phillipīs, at Phillipi (cf. § 80, footnote).
b. The genitive of nouns in -ius or -ium ended, until the Augustan Age, in a single -ī: as, fīlī, of a son; Pompêī, of Pompey (Pompêius); but the accent of the nominative is retained: as, ingĕ́nī, of genius.²⁵
c. Proper names in -ius have -ī in the vocative, retaining the accent of the nominative: as, Vergĭ́lī. So also, fīlius, son; genius, divine guardian: as, audī, mī fīlī, hear, my son. Adjectives in -ĭus form the vocative in -ie, and some of these are occasionally used as nouns: as, Lacedemonie, O Spartan.
NOTE.—Greek names in -īus have the vocative in -īe: as, Lyrcīus, vocative Lyrcīe.

d. The genitive plural often has -um or (after v) -om (cf. § 6. a) instead of -ōrum, especially in the poets: as, deum, superum, dīvom, of the gods; virum, of men. Also in compounds of vir, and in many words of money, measure, and weight: as, Sēvirum, of the Seviri; nummum, of coins; iūgerum, of acres.
e. The original ending of the ablative singular (-ōd) is sometimes found in early Latin: as, Gnaivōd (later, Gnaeō), Cneius.
f. Proper names in -âius, -êius, -ôius (as, Aurunculêius, Bôī, are declined like Pompêius. SECOND DECLENSION (Ō-STEMS)
g. Deus (M.), god, is thus declined:—

SINGULAR	PLURAL
NOM. deus	deī (diī), dī
GEN. deī	deōrum, deum
DAT. deō	deīs, (diīs) dīs
ACC. deum	deōs
ABL. deō	deīs, (diīs) dīs

NOTE.—The vocative singular of deus does not occur in classic Latin, but is said to have been dee; deus (like the nominative) occurs in the Vulgate. For the genitive plural, dīvum or dīvom (from dīvus, divine) is often used.

50. The following stems in ero-, in which e belongs to the stem, retain the e throughout and are declined like puer (§ 47):—

adulter, adulterer;	gener, son-in-law;	puer, boy;
socer, father-in-law;	vesper, evening;	Līber, Bacchus.

NONOTE the adjective līber, free, of which līberī, children, is the plural (§ 111. a), and compounds in -fer and -ger (stem fero-, gero-): as, lūcifer, morning star; armiger, squire.
a. An old nominative socerus occurs. So vocative puere, boy, as if from †puerus (regularly puer).
b. Vir, man, has genitive virī; the adjective satur, sated, has saturī; vesper, evening, has ablative vespere (locative vesperī, in the evening).
c. Mulciber, Vulcan, has -berī and -brī in the genitive. The barbaric names Hibēr and Celtibēr retain ē throughout.

51. The following, not having e in the stem, insert it in the nominative singular and are declined like ager (§ 47):—

ager, field, stem agro-;	coluber, snake;	magister, master;
aper, boar;	conger, sea eel;	minister, servant;
arbiter, judge;	culter, knife;	oleaster, wild olive;
auster, south wind;	faber, smith;	onager (-grus), wild ass;
cancer, crab;	fiber, beaver;	scomber (-brus), mackerel.
caper, goat;	liber, book;

Greek Nouns of the Second Declension

52. Greek nouns of the Second Declension end in -os, -ōs, masculine or feminine, and in -on neuter. They are mostly proper names and are declined as follows in the Singular, the Plural, when found, being regular:— DECLENSION OF NOUNS

	mȳthos, M.	Athōs, M.	Dēlos, F.	Īlion, N.
	fable	Athos	Delos	Ilium
SINGULAR NOM.	mȳthos	Athōs (-ō)	Dēlos	Īlion
GEN.	mȳthī	Athō (-ī)	Dēlī	Īliī
DAT.	mȳthō	Athō	Dēlō	Īliō
ACC.	mȳthon	Athōn (-um)	Dēlon (-um)	Īlion
ABL.	mȳthō	Athō	Dēlō	Īliō
VOC.	mȳthe	Athōs	Dēle	Īlion

a. Many names in -ēs belonging to the third declension have also a genitive in -ī: as, Thūcȳdidēs, Thūcȳdidī (compare § 44. b).
b. Several names in -er have also a nominative in -us: as, Teucer or Teucrus. The name Pauthūs has the vocative Panthū (§ 81. 3).
c. The genitive plural of certian titles of books takes the Greek termination -ōn: as, Geōrgicōn, of the Georgics.
d. The termination -oe (for Greek -οι) is sometimes found in the nominative plural: as, Adelphoe, the Adelphi (a play of Terence).
e. Greek names in -eus (like Orpheus) have forms of the second and third declensions (see § 82).

THIRD DECLENSION (CONSONANT AND i-STEMS)

53. Nouns of the Third Declension end in a, e, ī, ō, y, c, l, n, r, s, t, x.

54. Stems of the Third Declension are classed as follows:—

Consonant Stems

a. Mute stems.

b. Liquid and Nasal stems.

II.

I-stems

a. Pure i-stems.

b. Mixed i-stems.

55. The Nominative is always derived from the stem. The variety in form in the Nominative is due to simple modifications of the stem, of which the most important are—
1. Combination of final consonants: as of c (or g) and s to form x; dux, stem duc-; rēx, rēgis, stem rēg-.
2. Omission of a final consonant: as of a final nasal; leō, leōnis, stem leōn-; ōrātiō, ōrātiōnis, stem ōrātiōn-.
3. Omission of a final vowel: as of final i; calcar, calcāris, stem calcāri-.
4. Change of a vowel in the final syllable: as of a to e; prīnceps (for -caps), prīncipis, stem prīncip- (for -cap-). THIRD DECLENSION: CONSONANT STEMS

CONSONANT STEMS

Mute Stems

56. Masculine and Feminine Nouns with mute stems form the Nominative by adding s to the stem. A labial (p) is retained before s: as, prīncep-s. A lingual (t, d) is dropped before s: as, mīles (stem mīlit-), cūstōs (stem cūstōd-). A palatal (c, g) unites with s to form x: as, dux (for †duc-s), rēx (for †rēg-s).
a. In disyllabic stems the final syllable often shows e in the nominative and i in the stem: as, prīnceps, stem prīncip- (for -cap-).

57. Nouns of this class are declined as follows:—

	-1em prīnceps, C., chief	rādīx, F., root	mīles, M., soldier
	STEM prīncip-	STEM rādīc-	STEM mīlit-
SINGULAR CASE-ENDINGS NOM.	prīnceps	rādīx	mīles	-s
GEN.	prīncipis	rādīcis	mīlitis	-is
DAT.	prīncipī	rādīcī	mīlitī	-ī
ACC.	prīncipem	rādīcem	mīlitem	-em
ABL.	prīncipe	rādīce	mīlite	-e
PLURAL NOM.	prīncipēs	rādīcēs	mīlitēs	-ēs
GEN.	prīncipum	rādīcum	mīlitum	-um
DAT.	prīncipibus	rādīcibus	mīlitibus	-ibus
ACC.	prīncipēs	rādīcēs	mīlitēs	-ēs
ABL.	prīncipibus	rādīcibus	mīlitibus	-ibus
	-1em cūstōs, C., guard	dux, C., leader	rēx, M., king
	STEM cūstōd-	STEM duc-	STEM rēg-
SINGULAR CASE-ENDINGS NOM.	cūstōs	dux	rēx	-s
GEN.	cūstōdis	ducis	rēgis	-is
DAT.	cūstōdī	ducī	rēgī	-ī
ACC.	cūstōdem	ducem	rēgem	-em
ABL.	cūstōde	duce	rēge	-e
DECLENSION OF NOUNS PLURAL NOM.	cūstōdēs	ducēs	rēgēs	-ēs
GEN.	cūstōdum	ducum	rēgum	-um
DAT.	cūstōdibus	ducibus	rēgibus	-ibus
ACC.	cūstōdēs	ducēs	rēgēs	-ēs
ABL.	cūstōdibus	ducibus	rēgibus	-ibus

a. In like manner are declined—

ariēs, -etis (M.), ram; comes, -itis (C.), companion; lapis, -idis (M.), stone; iūdex, -icis (M.), judge; cornīx, -īcis (F.), raven, and many other nouns.

58. Most mute stems are Masculine or Feminine. Those that are neuter have for the Nominative the simple stem. But,—
a. Lingual stems (t, d) ending in two consonants drop the final mute: as, cor (stem cord-), lac (stem lact-). So stems in at- from the Greek: as, poēma (stem poēmat-).
b. The stem capit- shows u in the nominative (caput for †capot).

59. Nouns of this class are declined as follows:—

	-1em cor, N., heart	caput, N., head	poēma, N., poem
	STEM cord-	STEM capit-	STEM poēmat-
SINGULAR CASE-ENDINGS NOM.	cor	caput	poēma	—
GEN.	cordis	capitis	poēmatis	-is
DAT.	cordī	capitī	poēmatī	-ī
ACC.	cor	caput	poēma	—
ABL.	corde	capite	poēmate	-e
PLURAL NOM.	corda	capita	poēmata	-a
GEN.	—	capitum	poēmatum	-um
DAT.	cordibus	capitibus	poēmatibus	-ibus
ACC.	corda	capita	poēmata	-a
ABL.	cordibus	capitibus	poēmatibus	-ibus

60. The following irregularities require notice:—
a. Greek neuters with nominative singular in -a (as poēma) frequently end in -īs in the dative and ablative plural, and rarely in -ōrum in the genitive plural; as, poēmatīs (for poēmatibus), poēmatōrum (for poēmatum).
b. A number of monosyllabic nouns with mute stems want the genitive plural (like cor). See § 103. g. 2. THIRD DECLENSION: CONSONANT STEMS

Liquid and Nasal Stems (l, n, r)

61. In Masculine and Feminine nouns with liquid and nasal stems the Nominative is the same as the stem. Exceptions are the following:—
1. Stems in -ōn drop n in the nominative: as in legiō, stem legiōn-.
2. Stems in din- and gin- drop n and keep an original ō in the nominative: as in virgō, stem virgin-.²⁶
3. Stems in in- (not din- or gin-) retain n and have e instead of i in the nominative: as in cornicen, stem cornicin-. ²⁶
4. Stems in tr- have -ter in the nominative: as, pater, stem patr-.²⁷

62. Nouns of this class are declined as follows:—

	-2em cōnsul, M., consul	leō, M., lion	virgō, F., maiden	pater, M., father
	-1em STEM cōnsul-	STEM leōn-	STEM virgin-	STEM patr-
SINGULAR CASE-ENDINGS NOM.	cōnsul	leō	virgō	pater	—
GEN.	cōnsulis	leōnis	virginis	patris	-is
DAT.	cōnsulī	leōnī	virginī	patrī	-ī
ACC.	cōnsulem	leōnem	virginem	patrem	-em
ABL.	cōnsule	leōne	virgine	patre	-e
PLURAL NOM.	cōnsulēs	leōnēs	virginēs	patrēs	-ēs
GEN.	cōnsulum	leōnum	virginum	patrum	-um
DAT.	cōnsulibus	leōnibus	virginibus	patribus	-ibus
ACC.	cōnsulēs	leōnēs	virginēs	patrēs	-ēs
ABL.	cōnsulibus	leōnibus	virginibus	patribus	-ibus

NOTE 1.—Stems in ll-, rr- (N.) lose one of their liquids in the nominative: as, far, farris; mel, mellis.

NOTE 2.—A few masculine and feminine stems have a nominative in -s as well as in -r: as, honōs or honor, arbōs or arbor.

NOTE 3.—Canis, dog, and iuvenis, youth, have -is in the nominative.

63. In Neuter nouns with liquid or nasal stems the Nominative is the same as the stem. Exceptions: 1. Stems in in- have e instead of i in the nominative: as in nōmen, stem nōmin-. 2. Most stems in er- and or- have -us in the nominative: as, genus, stem gener-.²⁸

64. Nouns of this class are declined as follows:—

	-2pc nomen, N., name	-1pc genus, N., race	corpus, N., body	aequor, N., sea
	-1pc STEM nomin-	-1pc STEM gener-	STEM corpor-	STEM aequor-
SINGULAR NOM.	nōmen	genus	corpus	aequor
GEN.	nōminis	generis	corporis	aequoris
DAT.	nōminī	generī	corporī	aequorī
ACC.	nōmen	genus	corpus	aequor
ABL.	nōmine	genere	corpore	aequore
PLURAL NOM.	nōmina	genera	corpora	aequora
GEN.	nōminum	generum	corporum	aequorum
DAT.	nōminibus	generibus	corporibus	aequoribus
ACC.	nōmina	genera	corpora	aequora
ABL.	nōminibus	generibus	corporibus	aequoribus

So also are declined opus, -eris, work; pīgnus, -eris or -oris, pledge, etc.
NOTE.—The following real or apparent liquid and nasal stems have the genitive plural in -ium, and are to be classed with the i-stems: imber, linter, ūter, venter; glīs, mās, mūs, [†rēn]; also vīrēs (plural of vīs: see § 79).

i-STEMS

65. Nouns of this class include —
1. Pure i-Stems:
a. Masculine and Feminine parisyllabic²⁹ nouns in -is and four in -er.
b. Neuters in -e, -al, and -ar.
2. Mixed i-Stems, declined in the singular like consonant stems, in the plural like i-stems. THIRD DECLENSION: PURE I-STEMS

Pure i-Stems

66. Masculine and Feminine parisyllabic nouns in -is form the Nominative singular by adding s to the stem. Four stems in bri- and tri- do not add s to form the nominative, but drop i and insert e before r. These are imber, linter, ūter, venter.

67. Nouns of this class are declined as follows:—

	-2pc sitis, F., thirst	turris, F., tower	īgnis, M., fire	imber, M., rain
	-1pc STEM siti-	STEM turri-	STEM īgni-	STEM imbri-
SINGULAR NOM.	sitis	turris	īgnis	imber
GEN.	sitis	turris	īgnis	imbris
DAT.	sitī	turrī	īgnī	imbrī
ACC.	sitim	turrim (-em)	īgnem	imbrem
ABL.	sitī	turrī (-e)	īgnī (-e)	imbrī (-e)
PLURAL NOM.		turrēs	īgnēs	imbrēs
GEN.		turrium	īgnium	imbrium
DAT.		turribus	īgnibus	imbribus
ACC.		turrīs (-ēs)	īgnīs (-ēs)	imbrīs (-ēs)
ABL.		turribus	īgnibus	imbribus

68. In Neuters the Nominative is the same as the stem, with final i changed to e: as, mare, stem mari-. But most nouns³⁰ in which the i of the stem is preceded by āl or ār lose the final vowel and shorten the preceding ā: as, anim al, stem animāli-.³¹
a. Neuters in -e, -al, and -ar have -ī in the ablative singular, -ium in the genitive plural, and -ia in the nominative and accusative plural: as, animal, animālī, -ia, -ium. DECLENSION OF NOUNS

69. Nouns of this class are declined as follows:—

	-1pc sedīle, N., seat	-1pc animal, N., animal	-1pc calcar, N., spur
	-.5pc STEM sedīli-	-.5pc STEM animāli-	-.5pc STEM calcāri-
SINGULAR CASE-ENDINGS NOM.	sedīle	animal	calcar	-e or —
GEN.	sedīlis	animālis	calcāris	-is
DAT.	sedīlī	animālī	calcārī	-ī
ACC.	sedīle	animal	calcar	-e or —
ABL.	sedīlī	animālī	calcārī	-ī
PLURAL NOM.	sedīlia	animālia	calcāria	-ia
GEN.	sedīlium	animālium	calcārium	-ium
DAT.	sedīlibus	animālibus	calcāribus	-ibus
ACC.	sedīlia	animālia	calcāria	-ia
ABL.	sedīlibus	animālibus	calcāribus	-ibus

Mixed i-Stems

70. Mixed i-stems are either original i-stems that have lost their i-forms in the singular, or consonant stems that have assumed i- forms in the plural.
NOTE.—It is sometimes impossible to distinguish between these two classes.

71. Mixed i-stems have -em in the accusative and -e in the ablative singular, -ium in the genitive³² and -īs or -ēs in the accusative plural. They include the following:—
1. Nouns in -ēs, gen. -is.³³
2. Monosyllables in -s or -x preceded by a consonant: as, ars, pōns, arx.
3. Polysyllables in -ns or -rs: as, cliēns, cohors.
4. Nouns in -tās, genitive -tātis (genitive plural usually -um) 2: as, cīvitās.
5. Penātēs, optimātēs, and nouns denoting birth or abode (patrials) in -ās, -īs, plural -ātēs, -ītēs: as, Arpīnās, plural Arpīnātēs; Quirīs, plural Quirītēs
6. The following monosyllables in -s or -x preceded by a vowel: dōs, fraus, glīs, līs, mās, mūs, nix, nox, strix, vīs. THIRD DECLENSION: MIXED I-STEMS

72. Nouns of this class are thus declined:—

	-2.5pc nūbēs, F., cloud	-1pc urbs, F., city	-.5pc nox, F., night	-1pc cliēns, M., client	-.75pc aetās, F., age
	-1.5pc STEM nūb(i)-	-1pc STEM urb(i)-	-.5pc STEM noct(i)-	-.75pc STEM client(i)-	-.75pc STEM aetāt(i)-
SINGULAR NOM.	nūbēs	urbs	nox	cliēns	aetās
GEN.	nūbis	urbis	noctis	clientis	aetātis
DAT.	nūbī	urbī	noctī	clientī	aetātī
ACC.	nūbem	urbem	noctem	clientem	aetātem
ABL.	nūbe	urbe	nocte	cliente	aetāte
PLURAL NOM.	nūbēs	urbēs	noctēs	clientēs	aetātēs
GEN.	nūbium	urbium	noctium	clientium³⁴	aetātum³⁵
DAT.	nūbibus	urbibus	noctibus	clientibus	aetātibus
ACC.	nūbīs(-ēs)	urbīs(-ēs)	noctīs(-ēs)	clientīs(-ēs)	aetātīs(-ēs)
ABL.	nūbibus	urbibus	noctibus	clientibus	aetātibus

Summary of i-Stems

73. The i-declension was confused even to the Romans themselves, nor was it stable at all periods of the language, early Latin having i-forms which afterwards disappeared. There was a tendency in nouns to lose the i-forms, in adjectives to gain them. The nominative plural (-īs)³⁶ was most thoroughly lost, next the accusative singular (-im), next the ablative (-ī); while the genitive and accusative plural (-ium, -īs) were retained in almost all.

74. I-stems show the i of the stem in the following forms:—
a. They have the genitive plural in -ium (but some monosyllables lack it entirely). For a few exceptions, see § 78.
b. All neuters have the nominative and accusative plural in -ia.
c. The accusative plural (M. or F.) is regularly -īs.
d. The accusative singular (M. or F.) of a few ends in -im (§ 75).
e. The ablative singular of all neuters, and of many masculines and feminines, ends in -ī (see § 76).

75. The regular case-ending of the Accusative singular of i-stems (M. or F.) would be -im: as, sitis, sitim (cf. stella, -am; servus, -um); but in most nouns this is changed to -em (following the consonant declension). DECLENSION OF NOUNS
a. The accusative in -im is found exclusively —
1. In Greek nouns and in names of rivers.
2. In būris, cucumis, rāvis, sitis, tussis, vīs.
3. In adverbs in -tim (being accusative of nouns in -tis), as, partim; and in amussim.
b. The accusative in -im is found sometimes in febris, puppis, restis turris, secūris, sēmentis, and rarely in many other words.

76. The regular form of the Ablative singular of i-stems would be -ī: as, sitis, sitī; but in most nouns this is changed to -e.
a. The ablative in -ī is found exclusively —
1. In nouns having the accusative in -im (§ 75); also secūris.
2. In the following adjectives used as nouns: aequālis, annālis, aquālis, cōnsulāris, gentīlis, molāris, prīmipīlāris, tribūlis.
3. In neuters in -e, -al, -ar: except baccar, iubar, rēte, and sometimes mare.
b. The ablative in -ī is found sometimes —
1. In avis, clāvis, febris, fīnis, īgnis,³⁷ imber, lūx, nāvis, ovis, pelvis, puppis, sēmentis, strigilis, turris, and occasionally in other words.
2. In the following adjectives used as nouns: affinis, bipennis, canālis, familāris, nātālis, rīvālis, sapiēns, tridēns, trirēmis, vōcālis.
NOTE 1.—The ablative of famēs is always famē (§ 105. e). The defective māne has sometimes mānī (§ 103. b. N.) as ablative.

NOTE 2.—Most names of towns in -e (as, Praeneste, Tergeste) and Sōracte, a mountain, have the ablative in -e. Caere has Caerēte.

NOTE 3.—Canis and iuvenis have cane, iuvene.

77. The regular Nominative plural of i-stems is -ēs,³⁸ but -īs occasionally found. The regular Accusative plural -īs is common but not exclusively used in any word. An old form for both cases is -eis (diphthong).

78. The following have -um (not -ium) in the genitive plural.
1. Always,— canis, iuvenis,³⁹ ambāgēs, mare (once only, otherwise wanting), volucris; regularly, sēdēs, vātēs.
2. Sometimes,— apis, caedēs, clādēs, mēnsis, struēs, subolēs.
3. Very rarely,— patrials in -ās, -ātis; -īs, -ītis; as, Arpīnās, Arpīnātum; Samnīs, Samnītum. THIRD DECLENSION: IRREGULAR NOUNS

Irregular Nouns of the Third Declension

79. In many nouns the stem is irregularly modified in the nominative or other cases. Some peculiar forms are thus declined:—

	bōs, C.	senex, M.	carō, F.	os, N.	vīs, F.
	ox, cow	old man	flesh	bone	force
SINGULAR NOM.	bōs	senex	carō	os	vīs
GEN.	b ovis	senis	carnis	ossis	vīs (rare)
DAT.	bovī	senī	carnī	ossī	vī (rare)
ACC.	bovem	senem	carnem	os	vim
ABL.	bove	sene	carne	osse	vī
PLURAL	cattle				strength
NOM.	bovēs	senēs	carnēs	ossa	vīrēs
GEN.	boum	senum	carnium	ossium	vīrium
DAT.	bōbus (būbus)	senibus	carnibus	ossibus	vīribus
ACC.	bovēs	senēs	carnēs	ossa	vīrīs (-ēs)
ABL.	bōbus (būbus)	senibus	carnibus	ossibus	vīribus

	sūs, C.	Iuppiter, M.	nix, F.	iter, N.
	swine	Jupiter	snow	march
SINGULAR
NOM.	sūs	Iuppiter⁴⁰	nix	iter
GEN.	suis	Iovis	nivis	itineris
DAT.	suī	Iovī	nivī	itinerī
ACC.	suem	Iovem	nivem	iter
ABL.	sue	Iove	nive	itinere
PLURAL NOM.	suēs		nivēs	itinera
GEN.	suum		nivium	itinerum
DAT.	s ūbus (suibus)		nivibus	itineribus
ACC.	suēs		nivēs	itinera
ABL.	s ūbus (suibus)		nivibus	itineribus

DECLENSION OF NOUNS
a. Two vowel-stems in ū-, grū- and sū-, which follow the third declension add s in the nominative, and are inflected like mute stems: grūs has also a nominative gruis; sūs has both suibus and s ūbus in the dative and ablative plural, grūs has only gruibus.
b. In the stem bov- (bou-) the diphthong ou becomes ō in the nominative (bōs, b ovis). In nāv- (nau-) an i is added (nāvis, -is), and it is declined like turris (§ 67). In I ov- ( = Ζεύς) the diphthong (ou) becomes ū in Iū-piter (for -p ater) genitive I ovis, etc.; but the form Iuppiter is preferred.
c. In iter, itineris (N.), iecur, iecinoris (iecoris) (N.), supellēx, supellēctili (F.), the nominative has been formed from a shorter stem; in senex, senis from a longer; so that these words show a combination of forms from two distinct stems.
d. In nix, nivis the nominative retains a g from the original stem, the g uniting with s, the nominative ending, to form x. In the other cases the stem assumes the form niv- and it adds i in the genitive plural.
e. Vās (N.), vāsis, keeps s throughout; plural vāsa, vāsōrum. A dative plural vāsibus also occurs. There is a rare singular vāsum.

The Locative Case

80. The Locative form for nouns of the third declension ends in the singular in -ī or -e, in the plural in -ibus: as, rūrī, in the country; Carthāginī or Carthāgine, at Carthage; Trallibus, at Tralles.⁴¹

Greek Nouns of the Third Declension

81. Many nouns originally Greek — mostly proper names — retain Greek forms of inflection. So especially —
1. Genitive singular in -os, as, tigridos.
2. Accusative singular in -a, as, aethera.
3. Vocative singular like the stem, as, Periclē, Orpheu, Atlā.
4. Nominative plural in - es, as, hērō es.
5. Accusative plural in - as, as, hērō as. THIRD DECLENSION: GREEK NOUNS

82. Some of these forms are seen in the following examples:—

	-3pchērōs, M., hero	-1.6pc lampas, F., torch	-.5pc basis, F., base	-.7pc tigris, C., tiger	-.8pc nāis, F., naiad
	-2pc STEM hērō-	-1.5pc STEM lampad-	-.5pc STEM basi-	-.5pc STEM tigri- tigrid- .	-.5pc STEM nāid-
			SINGULAR
NOM.	hērōs	lampas	basis	tigris	nāis
GEN.	hērōis	lampados	baseōs	tigris(-idos)	nāidos
DAT.	hērōī	lampadī	basī	tigrī	nāidī
ACC.	hērōa	lampada	basin	tigrin(-ida)	nāida
ABL.	hērōe	lampade	basī	tigrī(-ide)	nāide
			PLURAL
NOM.	hērō es	lampad es	basēs	tigrēs	nāid es
GEN.	hērōum	lampadum	basium(-eōn)	tigrium	nāidum
D.,A.⁴²	hērōibus	lampadibus	basibus	tigribus	nāidibus
ACC.	hērō as	lampad as	basīs(-eis)	tigrīs(-id as)	nāid as

PROPER NAMES
NOM.	Dīdō	Simoīs	Capys
GEN.	Dīdōnis(Dīdūs)	Simoentis	Capyos
DAT.	Dīdōnī(Dīdō)	Simoentī	Capyī
ACC.	Dīdōnem(-ō)	Simoenta	Capyn
ABL.	Dīdōne(-ō)	Simoente	Capyë
VOC.	Dīdō	Simoīs	Capy
NOM.	Orpheus	Periclēs	Paris
GEN.	Orpheī(-eōs)	Periclis(-ī)	Paridis
DAT.	Orpheī(-eō)	Periclī(-i)	Paridī
ACC.	Orphea(-um)	Periclem(-ea, -ēn)	-6pt Paridem Parim(-in) .
ABL.	Orpheō	Pericle	Paride, Parī
VOC.	Orpheu	Periclēs(-ē)	Pari

NOTE.—The regular Latin forms may be used for most of the above.

83. Other peculiarities are the following:—
a. Delphīnus, -ī (M.), has also the form delphīn, -īnis; Salamīs, -is (F.), has acc. Salamīna.
b. Most stems in ĭd- (nom. -is) often have also the forms of i-stems: as, tigris, gen. -ĭdis (-ĭdos) or -is; acc. -ĭdem (-ĭda) or -im (-in); abl. -ĭde or -ī. But many, including most feminine proper names, have acc. -idem (-ida), abl. -ide,— not -im or -ī. (These stems are irregular also in Greek.) DECLENSION OF NOUNS
c. Stems in on- sometimes retain -n in the nominative: as, Agamemnōn (or Agamemnō), genitive - onis, accusative - ona.
d. Stems in ont- form the nominative in -ōn: as, horizōn, Xenophōn but a few are occasionally Latinized into ōn- (nom. -ō): as, Dracō, -ōnis; Antiphō, -ōnis.
e. Like Simoīs are declined stems in ant-, ent-, and a few in ūnt- (nominative in -ās, -īs, -ūs): as, Atlās, -antis; Trapezūs, -ūntis.
f. Some words fluctuate between different declensions: as Orpheus between the second and the third.
g. -ōn is found in the genitive plural in a few Greek titles of books: as Metamorphōseōn, of the Metamorphoses (Ovid's well-known poem); Geōrgicōn of the Georgics (a poem of Virgil).

Gender in the Third Declension

84. The Gender of nouns of this declension must be learned by practice and from the Lexicon. Many are masculine or feminine by nature or in accordance with the general rules for gender (p. 15). The most important rules for the others, with their principal exceptions, are the following:—⁴³

85. Masculine are nouns in -or, -ōs, -er, - es (gen. -itis), -ex (gen. -ĭcis): as, color, flōs, imber, gurges (gurgitis), vertex (verticis). Exceptions are the following:—
a. Feminine are arbor; cōs, dōs; linter.
b. Neuter are ador, aequor, cor, marmor; ōs (ōris); also os (ossis); cadāver, iter, tūber, ūber, vēr; and names of plants and trees in -er: as, acer, papāver.

86. Feminine are nouns in -ō, -ās, -ēs, -is, -ūs, -x, and in -s preceded by a consonant: as, legiō, cīvitās, nūbēs, avis, virtūs, arx, urbs. The nouns in -ō are mostly those in -dō and -gō, and abstract and collective nouns in -iō. Exceptions are the following:—
a. Masculine are leō, leōnis; ligō, ōnis; sermō, -ōnis; also cardō, harpagō, margō, ōrdō, turbō; and concrete nouns in -iō: as, pugiō, ūniō, papiliō;⁴⁴ acīnacēs, ariēs, celēs, lebēs, pariēs, pēs; FOURTH DECLENSION Nouns in -nis and -guis: as, īgnis, sanguis; also axis, caulis, collis, cucumis, ēnsis, fascis, follis, fūstis, lapis, mēnsis, orbis, piscis, postis, pulvis, vōmis; mūs; calix, fornix, grex, phoenīx, and nouns in -ex (gen. -icis) (§ 85); dēns, fōns, mōns, pōns.
NOTE.—Some nouns in -is and -ns which are masculine were originally adjectives or participles agreeing with a masculine noun: as, Aprīlis (sc. mēnsis), M., April; oriēns (sc. sōl), M., the east; annālis (sc. liber), M., the year-book.

b. Neuter are vās (vāsis); crūs, iūs, pūs, rūs, tūs.

87. Neuter are nouns in -a, -e, -l, -n, -ar, -ur, - us: as, poēma, mare, animal, nōmen, calcar, rōbur, corpus; also lac and caput. Exceptions are the following:—
a. Masculine are sāl, sōl, pecten, vultur, lepus.
b. Feminine is pecus (gen. -udis).

FOURTH DECLENSION

88. The Stem of nouns of the Fourth Declension ends in u-. This is usually weakened to i before -bus. Masculine and Feminine nouns form the nominative by adding s; Neuters have for nominative the simple stem, but with ū (long).

89. Nouns of the Fourth Declension are declined as follows:

	-2.5pcmanus, F., hand	-.75pclacus, M., lake		-1pcgenū, N., knee
	-1.5pc STEM manu-	-.5pc STEM lacu-		-.5pc STEM genu-
SINGULAR			-2pcCASE-ENDINGS	CASE-ENDINGS
NOM.	manus	lacus	-us	genū	-ū
GEN.	manūs	lacūs	-ūs	genūs	-ūs
DAT.	manuī(-ū)	lacuī(-ū)	-uī(-ū)	genū	-ū
ACC.	manum	lacum	-um	genū	-ū
ABL.	manū	lacū	-ū	genū	-ū
PLURAL
NOM.	manūs	lacūs	-ūs	genua	-ua
GEN.	manuum	lacuum	-uum	genuum	-uum
DAT.	manibus	lacubus	-ibus(-ubus)	genibus	-ibus
ACC.	manūs	lacūs	-ūs	genua	-ua
ABL.	manibus	lacubus	-ibus(-ubus)	genibus	-ibus

DECLENSION OF NOUNS

Gender in the Fourth Declension

90. Most nouns of the Fourth Declension in -us are Masculine. Exceptions: The following are Feminine: acus, anus, colus, domus, īdūs (plural), manus, nurus, porticus, quīnquātrūs (plural), socrus, tribus, with a few names of plants and trees. Also, rarely, penus, specus.

91. The only Neuters of the Fourth Declension are cornū, genū, pecū (§ 105. f), verū.⁴⁵

Case-Forms in the Fourth Declension

92. The following peculiarities in case-forms of the Fourth Declension require notice:—
a. A genitive singular in -ī (as of the second declension) sometimes occurs in nouns in -tus: as, senātus, genitive senātī (regularly senātūs).
b. In the genitive plural -uum is sometimes pronounced as one syllable, and may then be written -um: as, currum (Aen. vi. 653) for curruum.
c. The dative and ablative plural in - ubus are retained in partus and tribus; so regularly in artus and lacus, and occasionally in other words; portus and specus have both -ubus and -ibus.
d. Most names of plants and trees, and colus, distaff, have also forms of the second declension: as, fīcus, fig, genitive fīcūs or fīcī.
e. An old genitive singular in -uis or -uos and an old genitive plural in -uom occur rarely: as, senātuis, senātuos; fluctuom.
f. The ablative singular ended anciently in -ūd (cf. § 43. N.^1): as magistrātūd.

93. Domus (F.), house, has two stems ending in u- and o-. Hence it shows forms of both the fourth and second declensions:

	SINGULAR	PLURAL
NOM.	domus	domūs
GEN.	domūs (domī, loc.)	domuum (domōrum)
DAT.	domuī (domō)	domibus
ACC.	domum	domōs (domūs)
ABL.	domō (domū)	domibus

NOTE 1.—The Locative is domī (rarely domuī), at home.

NOTE 2.—The Genitive domī occurs in Plautus; domōrum is late or poetic.
FIFTH DECLENSION (Ē-STEMS)

94. Most nouns of the Fourth Declension are formed from verb-stems, or roots, by means of the suffix -tus (-sus) (§ 238. b):

cantus, song, CAN, canō, sing; cāsus (for †cad-tus), chance, CAD, cadō, fall; exsulātus, exile, from exsulō, to be an exile (exsul).

a. Many are formed either from verb-stems not in use, or by analogy:

cōnsulātus (as if from †cōnsulō, -āre), senātus, incestus.

b. The accusative and the dative or ablative of nouns in -tus (-sus) form the Supines of verbs (§ 159. b): as, spectātum, petītum; dictū, vīsū.
c. Of many verbal derivatives only the ablative is used as a noun: as, iussū (meō), by (my) command; so iniussū (populī), without (the people's) order. Of some only the dative is used: as, dīvīsuī.

FIFTH DECLENSION (ē-STEMS)

95. The Stem of nouns of the Fifth Declension ends in ē-, which appears in all the cases. The Nominative is formed from the stem by adding s.

96. Nouns of the Fifth Declension are declined as follows:—

	rēs, F., thing	diēs, M., day	fidēs, F., faith
	STEM rē-	STEM diē-	STEM fidē-
		SINGULAR
CASE-ENDINGS NOM.	rēs	diēs	fidēs	-ēs
GEN.	r eī	diēī (diē)	fid eī	-ēī (-ē)
DAT.	r eī	diēī (diē)	fid eī	-ēī (-ē)
ACC.	rem	diem	fidem	-em
ABL.	rē	diē	fidē	-ē
		PLURAL
NOM.	rēs	diēs		-ēs
GEN.	rērum	diērum		-ērum
DAT.	rēbus	diēbus		-ēbus
ACC.	rēs	disēs		-ēs
ABL.	rēbus	diēbus		-ēbus

NOTE.—The ē of the stem is shortened in the genitive and dative singular of fidēs, spēs, rēs, but in these it is found long in early Latin. In the accusative singular e is always short.
DECLENSION OF NOUNS

Gender in the Fifth Declension

97. All nouns of the Fifth Declension are Feminine, except diēs (usually M.), day, and merīdiēs (M.), noon.
a. Diēs is sometimes feminine in the singular, especially in phrases indicating a fixed time, and regularly feminine when used of time in general as, cōnstitūtā diē, on a set day; longa diēs, a long time.

Case-Forms in the Fifth Declension

98. The following peculiarities require notice:—
a. Of nouns of the fifth declension, only diēs and rēs are declined throughout. Most want the plural, which is, however, found in the nominative or accusative in aciēs, effigiēs, ēluviēs, faciēs, glaciēs, seriēs, speciēs, spēs.⁴⁶
b. The Locative form of this declension ends in -ē. It is found only in certain adverbs and expressions of time:—

hodiē, to-day;	diē quārtō (old, quārtī), the fourth day;
perendiē, day after to-morrow;	prīdiē, the day before.

c. The fifth declension is closely related to the first, and several noun have forms of both: as, māteria, -iēs; saevitia, -iēs. The genitive and dative in -ēī are rarely found in these words.
d. Some nouns vary between the fifth and the third declension: as, requiēs, satiēs (also satiās, genitive -ātis), plēbēs (also plēbs, genitive plēbis) famēs, genitive famis, ablative famē.
NOTE.—In the genitive and dative -ēī (- eī) was sometimes contracted into -ei as, tribūnus plēbei, tribune of the people (plēbēs). Genitives in -ī and -ē also occur as, diī (Aen. i. 636), plēbī-scītum, aciē (B. G. ii. 23). A few examples of the old genitive in -ēs are found (cf. -ās in the first declension, § 43. b). The dative has rarely -ē and a form in -ī is cited.

DEFECTIVE NOUNS

Nouns wanting in the Plural

99. Some nouns are ordinarily found in the Singular number only (singulāria tantum). These are —
1. Most proper names: as, Caesar, Cæsar; Gallia, Gaul.
2. Names of things not counted, but reckoned in mass: as, aurum, gold; āēr, air; trīticum, wheat.
3. Abstract nouns: as, ambitiō, ambition; fortitūdō, courage; calor, heat. DEFECTIVE NOUNS

100. Many of these nouns, however, are used in the plural in some other sense.
a. The plural of a proper name may be applied to two or more persons or places, or even things, and so become strictly common:—

duodecim Caesarēs, the twelve Cæsars.

Galliae, the two Gauls (Cis- and Transalpine).

Castores, Castor and Pollux; Iovēs, images of Jupiter.

b. The plural of names of things reckoned in mass may denote particular objects: as, aera, bronze utensils, nivēs, snowflakes; or different kinds of a thing: as, āerēs, airs (good and bad).
c. The plural of abstract nouns denotes occasions or instances of the quality, or the like:—

quaedam excellentiae, some cases of superiority; ōtia, periods of rest; calōrēs, frīgora, times of heat and cold.

Nouns wanting in the Singular

101. Some nouns are commonly or exclusively found in the Plural (plūrālia tantum). Such are—
1. Many names of towns: as, Athēnae (Athens), Thūriī, Philippī, Vêiī.
2. Names of festivals and games: as, Olympia, the Olympic Games; Bacchānālia, feast of Bacchus; Quīnquātrūs, festival of Minerva; lūdī Rōmānī, the Roman Games.
3. Names of classes: as, optimātēs, the upper classes; mâiōrēs, ancestors; līberī, children; penātēs, household gods; Quirītēs, citizens (of Rome).
4. Words plural by signification: as, arma, weapons; artūs, joints; dīvitiae, riches; scālae, stairs; valvae, folding-doors; forēs, double-doors; angustiae, a narrow pass (narrows); moenia, city walls.
NOTE 1.—Some words, plural by signification in Latin, are translated by English nouns in the singular number: as, dēliciae, delight, darling; faucēs, throat; fidēs, lyre (also singular in poetry); īnsidiae, ambush; cervīcēs, neck; viscera, flesh.

NOTE 2.—The poets often use the plural number for the singular, sometimes for metrical reasons, sometimes from a mere fashion: as, ōra (for ōs), the face; scēptra (for scēptrum), sceptre; silentia (for silentium), silence.

102. Some nouns of the above classes (§ 101. 1–4), have a corresponding singular, as noun or adjective, often in a special sense:
1. As noun, to denote a single object: as, Bacchānal, a spot sacred to Bacchus; optimās, an aristocrat.
2. As adjective: as, Catō Mâior, Cato the Elder.
3. In a sense rare, or found only in early Latin: as, scāla, a ladder; valva, a door; artus, a joint. DECLENSION OF NOUNS

Nouns Defective in Certain Cases

103. Many nouns are defective in case-forms:⁴⁷—
a. Indeclinable nouns, used only as nominative and accusative singular: fās, nefās, īnstar, nihil, opus (need), secus.
NOTE 1.—The indeclinable adjective necesse is used as a nominative or accusative.

NOTE 2.—The genitive nihilī and the ablative nihilō (from nihilum, nothing) occur.

b. Nouns found in one case only (monoptotes):—
1. In the nominative singular: glōs (F.).
2. In the genitive singular: dicis, naucī (N.).
3. In the dative singular: dīvīsuī (M.) (cf. § 94. c).
4. In the accusative singular: amussim (M.); vēnum (dative vēnō in Tacitus).
5. In the ablative singular: pondō (N.); māne (N.); astū (M.), by craft; iussū, iniussū, nātū, and many other verbal nouns in -us (M.) (§ 94. c).
NOTE.—Māne is also used as an indeclinable accusative, and an old form mānī is used as ablative. Pondō with a numeral is often apparently equivalent to pounds. A nominative singular astus and a plural astūs occur rarely in later writers.

6. In the accusative plural: īnfitiās.
c. Nouns found in two cases only (diptotes):—
1. In the nominative and ablative singular: fors, forte (F.).
2. In the genitive and ablative singular: spontis (rare), sponte (F.).
3. In the accusative singular and plural: dicam, dicās (F.).
4. In the accusative and ablative plural: forās, forīs (F.) (cf. forēs), used as adverbs.
d. Nouns found in three cases only (triptotes):—
1. In the nominative, accusative, and ablative singular: impetus, -um, -ū (M.)⁴⁸ luēs, -em, -ē (F.).
2. In the nominative, accusative, and dative or ablative plural: grātēs, -ibus (F.).
3. In the nominative, genitive, and dative or ablative plural: iūgera, -um, -ibus (N.); but iūgerum, etc., in the singular (cf. § 105. b).
e. Nouns found in four cases only (tetraptotes):— In the genitive, dative, accusative, ablative singular: diciōnis, -ī, -em, -e (F.).
f. Nouns declined regularly in the plural, but defective in the singular:—
1. Nouns found in the singular, in genitive, dative, accusative, ablative: frūgis, -ī, -em, -e (F.); opis, -ī (once only), -em, -e (F.; nominative Ops as a divinity).
2. Nouns found in the dative, accusative, ablative: precī, -em, -e (F.).
3. Nouns found in the accusative and ablative: cassem, -e (F.); sordem, -e (F.).
4. Nouns found in the ablative only: ambāge (F.); fauce (F.); obice (C.).
g. Nouns regular in the singular, defective in the plural:— VARIABLE NOUNS
1. The following neuters have in the plural the nominative and accusative only: fel (fella), far (farra), hordeum (hordea), iūs, broth (iūra), mel (mella), murmur (murmura), pūs (pūra), rūs (rūra), tūs or thūs (tūra).
NOTE.—The neuter iūs, right, has only iūra in classical writers, but a very rare genitive plural iūrum occurs in old Latin.

2. calx, cor, cōs, crux, fax, faex, lanx, lūx, nex, ōs, (ōris),⁴⁹ os (ossis),⁵⁰ pāx, pix, rōs, sāl, sōl, vas (vadis), want the genitive plural.
3. Most nouns of the fifth declension want the whole or part of the plural (see § 98. a).
h. Nouns defective in both singular and plural:—
1. Noun found in the genitive, accusative, ablative singular; nominative, accusative, dative, ablative plural: vicis, -em, -e; -ēs, -ibus.
2. Noun found in the genitive, dative, accusative, and ablative singular; genitive plural wanting: dapis, -ī, -em, -e; -ēs, -ibus.⁵¹

VARIABLE NOUNS

104. Many nouns vary either in Declension or in Gender.

105. Nouns that vary in Declension are called heteroclites.⁵²
a. Colus (F.), distaff; domus (F.), house (see § 93), and many names of plants in -us, vary between the Second and Fourth Declensions.
b. Some nouns vary between the Second and Third: as, iūgerum, -ī, -ō, ablative -ō or -e, plural -a, -um, -ibus; Mulciber, genitive -berī and -beris; sequester, genitive -trī and -tris; vās, vāsis, and (old) vāsum, -ī (§ 79. e).
c. Some vary between the Second, Third, and Fourth: as, penus, penum, genitive penī and penoris, ablative penū.
d. Many nouns vary between the First and Fifth (see § 98. c).
e. Some vary between the Third and Fifth. Thus,— requiēs has genitive -ētis, dative wanting, accusative -ētem or -em, ablative -ē (once -ēte); famēs, regularly of the third declension, has ablative famē (§ 76. N.^1), and pūbēs (M.) has once dative pūbē (in Plautus).
f. Pecus varies between the Third and Fourth, having pecoris, etc., but also nominative pecū, ablative pecū; plural pecua, genitive pecuum.
g. Many vary between different stems of the same declension: as, femur (N.), genitive -oris, also -inis (as from †femen); iecur (N.), genitive iecinoris, iocinoris, iecoris; mūnus (N.), plural mūnera and mūnia. DECLENSION OF NOUNS

106. Nouns that vary in Gender are said to be heterogeneous.⁵³
a. The following have a masculine form in -us and a neuter in -um: balteus, cāseus, clipeus, collum, cingulum, pīleus, tergum, vāllum, with many others of rare occurrence.
b. The following have in the Plural a different gender from that of the Singular:—

balneum (N.), bath;	balneae (F.), baths (an establishment).
caelum (N.), heaven;	caelōs (M. acc., Lucr.).
carbasus (F.), a sail;	carbasa (N.) (-ōrum), sails.
dēlicium (N.), pleasure;	dēliciae (F.), pet.
epulum (N.), feast;	epulae (F.), feast.
frēnum (N.), a bit;	frēnī (M.) or frēna (N.), a bridle.
iocus (M.), a jest;	ioca (N.), iocī (M.), jests.
locus (M.), place;	loca (N.), locī (M., usually topics, passages in books)
rāstrum (N.), a rake;	rāstri (M.), rāstra (N.), rakes.

NOTE.—Some of these nouns are heteroclites as well as heterogeneous.

107. Many nouns are found in the Plural in a peculiar sense:—

aedēs, -is (F.), temple;	aedēs, -ium, house.
aqua (F.), water;	aquae, mineral springs, a watering-place.
auxilium (N.), help;	auxilia, auxiliaries.
bonum (N.), a good;	bona, goods, property.
carcer (M.), dungeon;	carcerēs, barriers (of race-course).
castrum (N.), fort;	castra, camp.
comitium (N.), place of assembly;	comitia, an election (town-meeting).
cōpia (F.), plenty;	cōpiae, stores, troops.
fidēs (F.), harp-string;	fidēs, lyre.
finis (M.), end;	finēs, bounds, territories.
fortūna (F.), fortune;	fortūnae, possessions.
grātia (F.), favor (rarely, thanks);	grātiae, thanks (also, the Graces).
hortus (M.), a garden;	hortī, pleasure-grounds.
impedīmentum (N.) hindrance;	impedīmenta, baggage.
littera (F.), letter (of alphabet);	litterae, epistle, literature.
locus (M.), place [plural loca (N.)];	locī,⁵⁴ topics, places in books.
lūdus (M.), sport;	lūdī, public games.
mōs (M.), habit, custom;	mōrēs, character.
nātālis (M.), birthday;	nātālēs, descent, origin.
opera (F.), work;	operae, day-laborers (``hands'').
[ops,] opis (F.), help (§ 103. f. 1);	opēs, resources, wealth.
pars (F.), part;	partēs, part (on the stage), party.
rōstrum (N.), beak of a ship;	rōstra, speaker's platform.
sāl (M. or N.), salt;	salēs, witticisms.
tabella (F.), tablet;	tabellae, documents, records.

NAMES OF PERSONS

108. A Roman had regularly three names:— (1) the praenōmen, or personal name; (2) the nōmen, or name of the gēns or house; (3) the cōgnōmen, or family name:— Thus in Mārcus Tullius Cicerō we have —

Mārcus, the praenōmen, like our Christian or given name;

Tullius, the nōmen, properly an adjective denoting of the Tullian gēns (or house) whose original head was a real or supposed Tullus;

Cicerō, the cōgnōmen, or family name, often in origin a nickname,— in this case from cicer, a vetch, or small pea.

NOTE.—When two persons of the same family are mentioned together, the cōgnōmen is usually put in the plural: as, Pūblius et Servius Sullae.

a. A fourth or fifth name was sometimes given as a mark of honor or distinction, or to show adoption from another gēns. Thus the complete name of Scipio the Younger was Pūblius Cornēlius Scīpiō āfricānus Aemiliānus: āfricānus, from his exploits in Africa; Aemiliānus, as adopted from the Æmilian gēns.⁵⁵
NOTE.—The Romans of the classical period had no separate name for these additions, but later grammarians invented the word āgnōmen to express them.

b. Women had commonly in classical times no personal names, but were known only by the nōmen of their gēns. Thus, the wife of Cicero was Terentia, and his daughter Tullia. A second daughter would have been called Tullia secunda or minor, a third daughter, Tullia tertia, and so on.
c. The commonest prænomens are thus abbreviated:—

A. Aulus.	L. Lūcius.	Q. Quīntus.
App. (Ap.) Appius.	M. Mārcus.	Ser. Servius.
*C. (G.) Gāius (Caius) (cf. § 1. a).*	M. Ḿānius.	Sex. (S.) Sextus.
*Cn. (Gn.) Gnaeus (Cneius).*	Mām. Māmercus.	Sp. Spurius.
D. Decimus.	N. (Num.) Numerius	T. Titus.
*K. Kaesō (Caeso).*	P. Pūblius.	Ti. (Tib.) Tiberius.

NOTE 1.—In the abbreviations C. and Cn., the initial character has the value of G (§ 1. a).
DECLENSION OF ADJECTIVES

ADJECTIVES

109. Adjectives and Participles are in general formed and declined like Nouns, differing from them only in their use.
1. In accordance with their use, they distinguish gender by different forms in the same word, and agree with their nouns in gender, number, and case. Thus,—

bonus puer, the good boy.

bona puella, the good girl.

bonum dōnum, the good gift.

2. In their inflection they are either (1) of the First and Second Declensions, or (2) of the Third Declension.

FIRST AND SECOND DECLENSIONS (ā- AND o-STEMS)

110. Adjectives of the First and Second Declensions (ā- an o-stems) are declined in the Masculine like servus, puer, or ager in the Feminine like stella; and in the Neuter like bellum. The regular type of an adjective of the First and Second Declensions is bonus, -a, -um, which is thus declined:—

bonus, bona, bonum, good
	MASCULINE	FEMININE	NEUTER
	STEM bono-	STEM bonā-	STEM bono-
		SINGULAR
NOM.	bonus	bona	bonum
GEN.	bonī	bonae	bonī
DAT.	bonō	bonae	bonō
ACC.	bonum	bonam	bonum
ABL.	bonō	bonā	bonō
VOC.	bone	bona	bonum
		PLURAL
NOM.	bonī	bonae	bona
GEN.	bonōrum	bonārum	bonōrum
DAT.	bonīs	bonīs	bonīs
ACC.	bonōs	bonās	bona
ABL.	bonīs	bonīs	bonīs

DECLENSION OF ADJECTIVES
NOTE.—Stems in quo- have nominative -cus (-quos), -qua, -cum (-quom), accusative -cum (-quom), -quam, -cum (-quom), to avoid quu- (see §§ 6. b and 46. N.^2). Thus,—

NOM.	propincus (-quos)	propinqua	propincum (-quom)
GEN.	propinquī	propinquae	propinquī, etc.

But most modern editions disregard this principle.

a. The Genitive Singular masculine of adjectives in -ius ends in -iī, and the Vocative in -ie; not in -ī, as in nouns (cf. § 49. b, c); as, Lacedaemonius, -iī, -ie.
NOTE.—The possessive meus, my, has the vocative masculine mī (cf. § 145).

111. Stems ending in ro- preceded by e form the Nominative Masculine like puer (§ 47) and are declined as follows:—

miser, misera, miserum, wretched

	MASCULINE	FEMININE	NEUTER
	STEM misero-	STEM miserā-	STEM misero-
		SINGULAR
NOM.	miser	misera	miserum
GEN.	miserī	miserae	miserī
DAT.	miserō	miserae	miserō
ACC.	miserum	miseram	miserum
ABL.	miserō	miserā	miserō
		PLURAL
NOM.	miserī	miserae	misera
GEN.	miserōrum	miserārum	miserōrum
DAT.	miserīs	miserīs	miserīs
ACC.	miserōs	miserās	misera
ABL.	miserīs	miserīs	miserīs

a. Like miser are declined asper, gibber, lacer, liber, prospor (also prosperus), satur (-ura, -urum), tenor, with compounds of -fer and -ger as, saetiger, -era, -erum, bristle-bearing; also, usually, dexter. In these the e belongs to the stem; but in dextra it is often omitted; as, dextra manus, the right hand.
NOTE.—Stems in ero- (as prōcērus), with morigĕrus, propĕrus, have the regular nominative masculine in -us.

b. The following lack a nominative singular masculine in classic use cētera, infera, postera, supera. They are rarely found in the singular except in certain phrases: as, posterō diē, the next day.
NOTE.—An ablative feminine in -ō is found in a few Greek adjectives: as, lectīcā octōphorō (Verr. v. 27).
DECLENSION OF ADJECTIVES

112. Stems in ro- preceded by a consonant form the Nominative Masculine like ager (§ 47) and are declined as follows:—

niger, nigra, nigrum, black

	MASCULINE	FEMININE	NEUTER
	STEM nigro-	STEM nigrā-	STEM nigro-
		-1em SINGULAR
NOM.	niger	nigra	nigrum
GEN.	nigrī	nigrae	nigrī
DAT.	nigrō	nigrae	nigrō
ACC.	nigrum	nigram	nigrum
ABL.	nigrō	nigrā	nigrō
		-1em PLURAL
NOM.	nigrī	nigrae	nigra
GEN.	nigrōrum	nigrārum	nigrōrum
DAT.	nigrīs	nigrīs	nigrīs
ACC.	nigrōs	nigrās	nigra
ABL.	nigrīs	nigrīs	nigrīs

a. Like niger are declined aeger, āter, crēber, faber, glaber, integer, lūdic, macer, piger, pulcher, ruber, sacer, scaber, sinister, taeter, vafer; also the possessives noster, vester (§ 145).

113. The following nine adjectives with their compounds have the Genitive Singular in -īus and the Dative in -ī in all gender.

alius (N. aliud), other.	tōtus, whole.	alter, -terīus, the other.
nūllus, no, none.	ūllus, any.	neuter, -trīus, neither.
sōlus, alone.	ūnus, one.	uter, -trīus, which (of two)

Of these the singular is thus declined:—

	M.	F.	N.	M.	F.	N.
NOM.	ūnus	ūna	ūnum	uter	utra	utrum
GEN.	ūnīus	ūnīus	ūnīus	utrīus	utrīus	utrīus
DAT.	ūnī	ūnī	ūnī	utrī	utrī	utrī
ACC.	ūnum	ūnam	ūnum	utrum	utram	utrum
ABL.	ūnō	ūnā	ūnō	utrō	utrā	utrō
NOM.	alius	alia	aliud	alter	altera	alterum
GEN.	alīus	alīus	alīus	alterīus	alterīus	alterīus
DAT.	aliī	aliī	aliī	alterī	alterī	alterī
ACC.	alium	aliam	aliud	alterum	alteram	alterum
ABL.	aliō	aliā	aliō	alterō	alterā	alterō

ADJECTIVES OF THE THIRD DECLENSION
a. The plural of these words is regular, like that of bonus (§ 110).
b. The genitive in -īus, dative in -ī, and neuter in -d are pronominal in origin (cf. illīus, illī, illud, and § 146).
c. The i of the genitive ending -īus, though originally long, may be made short in verse; so often in alterius and regularly in utriusque.
d. Instead of alīus, alterīus is commonly used, or in the possessive sense the adjective aliēnus, belonging to another, another's.
e. In compounds — as alteruter — sometimes both parts are declined, sometimes only the latter. Thus, alterī utrī or alterutrī, to one of the two.
NOTE.—The regular genitive and dative forms (as in bonus) are sometimes found in some of these words: as, genitive and dative feminine, aliae; dative masculine, aliō. Rare forms are alis and alid (for alius, aliud).

THIRD DECLENSION (CONSONANT AND i-STEMS)

114. Adjectives of the Third Declension are thus classified:—
1. Adjectives of Three Terminations in the nominative singular,— one for each gender: as, ācer, ācris, ācre.
2. Adjectives of Two Terminations,— masculine and feminine the same: as, levis (M., F.), leve (N.).
3. Adjectives of One Termination,— the same for all three genders: as, atrōx.
a. Adjectives of two and three terminations are true i-stems and hence retain in the ablative singular -ī, in the neuter plural -ia, in the genitive plural -ium, and in the accusative plural regularly -īs (see §§ 73 and 74).⁵⁶

Adjectives of Three and of Two Terminations

115. Adjectives of Three Terminations are thus declined:—

ācer, ācris, ācre, keen, STEM ācri-
	SINGULAR			PLURAL
	M.	F.	N.	M.	F.	N.
NOM.	ācer	ācris	ācre	ācrēs	ācrēs	ācria
GEN.	ācris	ācris	ācris	ācrium	ācrium	ācrium
DAT.	ācrī	ācrī	ācrī	ācribus	ācribus	ācribus
ACC.	ācrem	ācrem	ācre	ācrīs (-ēs)	ācrīs (-ēs)	ācria
ABL.	ācrī	ācrī	ācrī	ācribus	ācribus	ācribus

DECLENSION OF ADJECTIVES
a. Like ācer are declined the following stems in ri-:—

alacer, campester, celeber, equester, palūster, pedester, puter, salūber, silvester terrester, volucer. So also names of months in -ber: as, Octōber (cf § 66).

NOTE 1.—This formation is comparatively late, and hence, in the poets and in early Latin, either the masculine or the feminine form of these adjectives was sometime used for both genders: as, coetus alacris (Enn.). In others, as faenebris, fūnebris, illūs tris, lūgubris, mediocris, muliebris, there is no separate masculine form at all, and these are declined like levis (§ 116).

NOTE 2.—Celer, celeris, celere, swift, has the genitive plural celerum, used only as noun, denoting a military rank. The proper name Celer has the ablative in -e.

116. Adjectives of Two Terminations are thus declined:—

levis, leve, light, STEM levi-	SINGULAR		PLURAL
	M., F.	N.	M., F.	N.
NOM.	levis	leve	levēs	levia
GEN.	levis	levis	levium	levium
DAT.	levī	levī	levibus	levibus
ACC.	levem	leve	levīs (-ēs)	levia
ABL.	levī	levī	levibus	levibus

NOTE.—Adjectives of two and three terminations sometimes have an ablative in -e in poetry, rarely in prose.

Adjectives of One Termination

117. The remaining adjectives of the third declension are Consonant stems; but most of them, except Comparatives, have the following forms of i-stems:—⁵⁷

-ī in the ablative singular (but often -e);

-ia in the nominative and accusative plural neuter;

-ium in the genitive plural;

-īs (as well as -ēs) in the accusative plural masculine and feminine.

In the other cases they follow the rule for Consonant stems.
a. These adjectives, except stems in l- or r-, form the nominative singular from the stem by adding s: as, atrōx (stem atrōc- s̆), egēns (stem egent- s̆).⁵⁸
b. Here belong the present participles in -ns (stem nt-)⁵⁹: as, amāns, monēns They are declined like egēns (but cf. § 121). ADJECTIVES OF THE THIRD DECLENSION

118. Adjectives of one termination are declined as follows:—

	atrōx, fierce, STEM atrōc-		egēns, needy, STEM egent-
SINGULAR	M., F.	N.	M., F.	N.
NOM.	atrōx	atrōx	egēns	egēns
GEN.	atrōcis	atrōcis	egentis	egentis
DAT.	atrōcī	atrōcī	egentī	egentī
ACC.	atrōcem	atrōx	egentem	egēns
ABL.	atrōcī (-e)	atrōcī (-e)	egentī (-e)	egentī (-e)
PLURAL NOM.	atrōcēs	atrōcia	egentēs	egentia
GEN.	atrōcium	atrōcium	egentium	egentium
DAT.	atrōcibus	atrōcibus	egentibus	egentibus
ACC.	atrōcīs (-ēs)	atrōcia	egentīs (-ēs)	egentia
ABL.	atrōcibus	atrōcibus	egentibus	egentibus

119. Other examples are the following:—

	concors, harmonious		praeceps, headlong
	STEM concord-		STEM praecipit-
SINGULAR	M., F.	N.	M., F.	N.
NOM.	concors	concors	praeceps	praeceps
GEN.	concordis	concordis	praecipitis	praecipitis
DAT.	concordī	concordī	praecipitī	praecipitī
ACC.	concordem	concors	praecipitem	praeceps
ABL.	concordī	concordī	praecipitī	praecipitī
PLURAL NOM.	concordēs	concordia	praecipitēs	praecipitia
GEN.	concordium	concordium	[praecipitium]⁶⁰
DAT.	concordibus	concordibus	praecipitibus	praecipitibus
ACC.	concordīs (-ēs)	concordia	praecipitīs (-ēs)	praecipitia
ABL.	concordibus	concordibus	praecipitibus	praecipitibus

DECLENSION OF ADJECTIVES

	iēns, going		pār, equal		dīves, rich
	STEM eunt-		STEM par-		STEM dīvit-
			SINGULAR
	M., F.	N.	M., F.	N.	M., F.	N.
NOM.	iēns	iēns	pār	pār	dīves	dīves
GEN.	euntis	euntis	paris	paris	dīvitis	dīvitis
DAT.	euntī	euntī	parī	parī	dīvitī	dīvitī
ACC.	euntem	iēns	parem	pār	dīvitem	dīves
ABL.	eunte (-ī)	eunte (-ī)	parī	parī	dīvite	dīvite
			PLURAL
NOM.	euntēs	euntia	parēs	paria	dīvitēs	[dītia]
GEN.	euntium	euntium	parium	parium	dīvitum	dīvitum
DAT.	euntibus	euntibus	paribus	paribus	dīvitibus	dīvitibus
ACC.	euntīs (-ēs)	euntia	parīs (-ēs)	paria	dīvitīs (-ēs)	[dītia]
ABL.	euntibus	euntibus	paribus	paribus	dīvitibus	dīvitibus

	ūber, fertile		vetus, old
	STEM ūber-		STEM veter-
SINGULAR	M., F.	N.	M., F.	N.
NOM.	ūber	ūber	vetus	vetus
GEN.	ūberis	ūberis	veteris	veteris
DAT.	ūberī	ūberī	veterī	veterī
ACC.	ūberem	ūber	veterem	vetus
ABL.	ūberī⁶¹	ūberī⁶¹	vetere (-ī)	vetere (-ī)
PLURAL NOM.	ūberēs	ūbera	veterēs	vetera
GEN.	ūberum	ūberum	veterum	veterum
DAT.	ūberibus	ūberibus	veteribus	veteribus
ACC.	ūberēs	ūbera	veterēs	vetera
ABL.	ūberibus	ūberibus	veteribus	veteribus

NOTE.—Of these vetus is originally an s-stem. In most s-stems the r has intruded itself into the nominative also, as bi-corpor (for †bi-corpos), dēgener (for †dē-genes).
DECLENSION OF COMPARATIVES

Declension of Comparatives

120. Comparatives are declined as follows:—

	melior, better		plūs, more
	STEM meliōr- for meliōs-		STEM plūr- for plūs-
SINGULAR	M., F.	N.	M., F.	N.
NOM.	melior	melius	—–	plūs
GEN.	meliōris	meliōris	—–	plūris
DAT.	meliōrī	meliōrī	—–	—–
ACC.	meliōrem	melius	—–	plūs
ABL.	meliōre (-ī)	meliōre (-ī)	—–	plūre
PLURAL NOM.	meliōrēs	meliōra	plūrēs	plūra
GEN.	meliōrum	meliōrum	plūrium	plūrium
DAT.	meliōribus	meliōribus	plūribus	plūribus
ACC.	meliōrēs (-īs)	meliōra	plūrēs (-īs)	plūra
ABL.	meliōribus	meliōribus	plūribus	plūribus

a. All comparatives except plūs are declined like melior.
b. The stem of comparatives properly ended in ō̆s-; but this became or in the nominative masculine and feminine, and ōr- in all other cases except the nominative and accusative singular neuter, where s is retained and ŏ is changed to ŭ (cf. honŏr, -ōris; corpus, -ŏris). Thus comparatives appear to have two terminations.
c. The neuter singular plūs is used only as a noun. The genitive (rarely the ablative) is used only as an expression of value (cf. § 417). The dative is not found in classic use. The compound complūrēs, several, has sometimes neuter plural complūria.

Case-Forms of Consonant Stems

121. In adjectives of Consonant stems —
a. The Ablative Singular commonly ends in -ī, but sometimes -e.
1. Adjectives used as nouns (as superstes, survivor) have -e.
2. Participles in -ns used as such (especially in the ablative absolute, § 419), or as nouns, regularly have -e; but participles used as adjectives have regularly -ī:—

dominō imperante, at the master's command; ab amante, by a lover; ab amantī muliere, by a loving woman.

DECLENSION OF ADJECTIVES
3. The following have regularly -ī:— āmēns, anceps, concors (and other compounds of cor), cōnsors (but as a substantive, -e), dēgener, hebes, ingēns, inops, memor (and compounds), pār (in prose), perpes, praeceps, praepes, teres.
4. The following have regularly -e:— caeles, compos, [†dēses], dīves, hospes, particeps, pauper, prīnceps, sōspes, superstes. So also patrials (see § 71. 5) and stems in āt-, īt-, nt-, rt-, when used as nouns, and sometimes when used as adjectives.
b. The Genitive Plural ends commonly in -ium, but has -um in the following:⁶²—
1. Always in compos, dīves, inops, particeps, praepes, prīnceps, supplex, and compounds of nouns which have -um: as, quadru-pēs, bi-color.
2. Sometimes, in poetry, in participles in -ns: as, silentum concilium, a council of the silent shades (Aen. vi. 432).
c. The Accusative Plural regularly ends in -īs, but comparatives commonly have -ēs.
d. Vetus (gen. -ĕris) and pūbes (gen. -ĕris) regularly have -e in the ablative singular, -a in the nominative and accusative plural, and -um in the genitive plural. For ūber, see § 119.
e. A few adjectives of one termination, used as nouns, have a feminine form in -a: as, clienta, hospita, with the appellative Iūnō Sōspita.

Irregularities and Special Uses of Adjectives

122. The following special points require notice:—
a. Several adjectives vary in declension: as, gracilis (-us), hilaris (-us), inermis (-us), bicolor (-ōrus).
b. A few adjectives are indeclinable: as, damnās, frūgī (really a dative of service, see § 382. 1. N.^2), nēquam (originally an adverb), necesse, and the pronominal forms tot, quot, aliquot, totidem. Potis is often used as an indeclinable adjective, but sometimes has pote in the neuter.
c. Several adjectives are defective: as, exspēs (only nom.), exlēx (exlēgen) (only nom. and acc. sing.), pernox (pernocte) (only nom. and abl. sing.) and prīmōris, sēminecī, etc., which lack the nominative singular.
d. Many adjectives, from their signification, can be used only in the masculine and feminine. These may be called adjectives of common gender. Such are adulēscēns, youthful; [†dēses], -idis, slothful; inops, -opis, poor; sōspes, -itis, safe. Similarly, senex, old man; and iuvenis, young man, are sometimes called masculine adjectives.

For Adjectives used as Nouns, see §§ 288, 289; for Nouns used as Adjectives, see § 321. c; for Adjectives used as Adverbs, see § 214; for Adverbs used as Adjective see § 321. d.

COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES

123. In Latin, as in English, there are three degrees of comparison: the Positive, the Comparative, and the Superlative.

124. The Comparative is regularly formed by adding -ior (neuter -ius),⁶³ the Superlative by adding -issimus (-a, -um), to the stem of the Positive, which loses its final vowel:—

cārus, dear (stem cāro-);	cārior, dearer;	cārissimus, dearest.
levis, light (stem levi-);	levior, lighter;	levissimus, lightest.
fēlix, happy (stem fēlic-);	fēlīcior, happier;	fēlīcissimus, happiest.
hebes, dull (stem hebet-);	hebetior, duller;	hebetissimus, dullest.

NOTE.—A form of diminutive is made upon the stem of some comparatives: as, grandius-culus, a little larger (see § 243).

a. Participles when used as adjectives are regularly compared:—

patiēns, patient; patientior, patientissimus.

apertus, open; apertior, apertissimus.

125. Adjectives in -er form the Superlative by adding -rimus to the nominative. The comparative is regular:—

ācer, keen; ācrior, ācerrimus.

miser, wretched; miserior, miserrimus.

a. So vetus (gen. veteris) has superlative veterrimus, from the old form veter; and mātūrus, besides its regular superlative (mātūrissimus), has a rare form mātūrrimus.

For the comparative of vetus, vetustior (from vetustus) is used.

126. Six adjectives in -lis form the Superlative by adding -limus to the stem clipped of its final i-. These are facilis, difficilis, similis, dissimilis, gracilis, humilis.

facilis (stem facili-), easy; facilior, facillimus.

127. Compounds in -dicus (saying) and -volus (willing) take in their comparison the forms of the corresponding participles dīcēns and volēns, which were anciently used as adjectives:—

maledicus, slanderous; maledīcentior, maledīcentissimus.

malevolus, spiteful; malevolentior, malevolentissimus.

COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES
a. So, by analogy, compounds in -ficus:—

māgnificus, grand; māgnificentior, māgnificentissimus.

128. Some adjectives are compared by means of the adverbs magis, more, and maximē, most. So especially adjectives in -us preceded by e or i:—

idōneus, fit; magis idōneus, maximē idōneus.

NOTE.—But pius has piissimus in the superlative, — a form condemned by Cicero but common in inscriptions; equally common, however, is the irregular pientissimus.

Irregular Comparison

129. Several adjectives have in their comparison irregular forms:—

bonus, good;	melior, better;	optimus, best.
malus, bad;	pêior, worse;	pessimus, worst.
māgnus, great;	mâior, greater;	maximus, greatest.
parvus, small;	minor, less;	minimus, least.
multus, much;	plūs (N.) (§ 120), more;	plūrimus, most.
multī, many;	plūrēs, more;	plūrimī, most.
nēquam (indecl., § 122. b),	nēquior;	nēquissimus.
worthless;
frūgī (indecl., § 122. b),	frūgālior;	frūgālissimus.
useful, worthy;
dexter, on the right, handy;	dexterior;	dextimus.

NOTE.—These irregularities arise from the use of different stems (cf. § 127). The frūgālior and frūgālissimus are formed from the stem frūgāli-, but are used as the comparative and superlative of the indeclinable frūgī.

Defective Comparison

130. Some Comparatives and Superlatives appear without Positive:—

ōcior, swifter;	ōcissimus, swiftest.
potior, preferable;⁶⁴	potissimus, most important.

a. The following are formed from stems not used as adjectives:⁶⁵— DEFECTIVE COMPARISON

cis, citrā (adv., on this side):	citerior, hither;	citimus, hithermost.
dē (prep., down):	dēterior, worse;	dēterrimus, worst.
in, intrā (prep., in, within):	interior, inner;	intimus, inmost.
prae, prō (prep., before):	prior, former;	prīmus, first.
prope (adv., near):	propior, nearer;	proximus, next.
ultrā (adv., beyond):	ulterior, farther;	ultimus, farthest.

b. Of the following the positive forms are rare, except when used as nouns (generally in the plural):—

exterus. outward;	exterior, outer;	extrēmus (extimus), outmost.
īnferus, below (see § 111. b);	īnferior, lower;	īnfimus (īmus), lowest.
posterus, following;	posterior, latter;	postrēmus (postumus), last.
superus, above;	superior, higher;	suprēmus or summus, highest.

But the plurals, exterī, foreigners; īnferī, the gods below; posterī, posterity; superī, the heavenly gods, are common.
NOTE.—The superlative postumus has the special sense of last-born, and was a well-known surname.

131. Several adjectives lack the Comparative or the Superlative:—
a. The Comparative is rare or wanting in the following:—

bellus,	inclutus (or inclitus),	novus,
caesius,	invictus,	pius,
falsus,	invītus,	sacer,
fīdus (with its compounds),	meritus,	vafer.

b. The Superlative is wanting in many adjectives in -ilis or -bilis (as, agilis, probābilis), and in the following:—

āctuōsus	exīlis	prōclīvis	surdus
agrestis	ingēns	propinquus	taciturnus
alacer	iēiūnus	satur	tempestīvus
arcānus	longinquus	sēgnis	teres
caecus	oblīquus	sērus	vīcīnus
diūturnus	opīmus	supīnus

c. From iuvenis, youth, senex, old man (cf. § 122. d), are formed the comparatives iūnior, younger, senior, older. For these, however, minor nātū and mâior nātū are sometimes used (nātū being often omitted). The superlative is regularly expressed by minimus and maximus, with or without nātū.
NOTE.—In these phrases nātū is ablative of specification (see § 418).

d. Many adjectives (as aureus, golden) are from their meaning incapable of comparison.
NOTE.—But each language has its own usage in this respect. Thus, niger, glossy black, and candidus, shining white, are compared; but not āter or albus, meaning absolute dead black or white (except that Plautus once has ātrior).
NUMERALS

NUMERALS

132. The Latin Numerals may be classified as follows:—
I. NUMERAL ADJECTIVES: 1. Cardinal Numbers, answering the question how many ? as, ūnus, one duo, two, etc. 2. Ordinal Numbers,⁶⁶ adjectives derived (in most cases) from the Cardinals, and answering the question which in order ? as, prīmus, first; secundus, second, etc. 3. Distributive Numerals, answering the question how many at a time? as, singulī, one at a time; bīnī, two by two, etc.
II. NUMERAL ADVERBS, answering the question how often ? as, semel, once; bis, twice, etc.

Cardinals and Ordinals

133. These two series are as follows:—

	CARDINAL	ORDINAL	ROMAN NUMERAL
1.	ūnus, ūna, ūnum, one	prīmus, -a, -um, first	I
2.	duo, duae, duo, two	secundus (alter), second	II
3.	trēs, tria, three	tertius, third	III
4.	quattuor	quārtus	IIII or IV
5.	quīnque	quīntus	V
6.	sex	sextus	VI
7.	septem	septimus	VII
8.	octō	octāvus	VIII
9.	novem	nōnus	VIIII or IX
10.	decem	decimus	X
11.	ūndecim	ūndecimus	XI
12.	duodecim	duodecimus	XII
13.	tredecim (decem (et) trēs)	tertius decimus (decimus (et) tertius)	XIII
14.	quattuordecim	quārtus decimus	XIIII or XIV
15.	quīndecim	quīntus decimus	XV
16.	sēdecim	sextus decimus	XVI
17.	septendecim	septimus decimus	XVII
18.	duodēvīgintī (octōdecim)	duodēvīcēnsimus (octāvus decimus)	XVIII

CARDINALS AND ORDINALS

	CARDINAL	ORDINAL	ROMAN NUMERALS
19.	ūndēvīgintī (novendecim)	ūndēvīcēnsimus (nōnus decimus)	XVIIII or XIX
20.	vīgintī	vīcēnsimus (vīgēnsimus)	XX
21.	vīgintī ūnus	vīcēnsimus prīmus	XXI
	(or ūnus et vīgintī, etc.)	(ūnus et vīcēnsimus, etc.)
30.	trīgintā	trīcēnsimus	XXX
40.	quadrāgintā	quadrāgēnsimus	XXXX or XL
50.	quīnquāgintā	quīnquāgēnsimus	↓ or L
60.	sexāgintā	sexāgēnsimus	LX
70.	septuāgintā	septuāgēnsimus	LXX
80.	octōgintā	octōgēnsimus	LXXX
90.	nōnāgintā	nōnāgēnsimus	LXXXX or XC
100.	centum	centēnsimus	C
101.	centum (et) ūnus, etc.	centēnsimus prīmus, etc.	CI
200.	ducentī, -ae, -a	ducentēnsimus	CC
300.	trecentī	trecentēnsimus	CCC
400.	quadringentī	quadringentēnsimus	CCCC
500.	quīngentī	quīngentēnsimus	D
600.	sescentī	sescentēnsimus	DC
700.	septingentī	septingentēnsimus	DCC
800.	octingentī	octingentēnsimus	DCCC
900.	nōngentī	nōngentēnsimus	DCCCC
1000.	mīlle	mīllēnsimus	∞ (CI ) or M
5000.	quīnque mīlia (mīllia)	quīnquiēns mīllēnsimus	I
10,000.	decem mīlia (mīllia)	deciēns mīllēnsimus	CCI
100,000.	centum mīlia (mīllia)	centiēns mīllēnsimus	CCCI

NOTE 1.—The forms in -ēnsimus are often written without the n: as, vīcēsimus, etc.

NOTE 2.—The forms octōdecim, novendecim are rare, duodēvīgintī (two from twenty), ūndēvīgintī (one from twenty), being used instead. So 28, 29; 38, 39; etc. may be expressed either by the subtraction of two and one or by the addition of eight and nine respectively.

Declension of Cardinals and Ordinals

134. Of the Cardinals only ūnus, duo, trēs, the hundreds above one hundred, and mīlle when used as a noun, are declinable.
a. For the declension of ūnus, see § 113. It often has the meaning of same or only. The plural is used in this sense; but also, as a simple numeral, to agree with a plural noun of a singular meaning: as, ūna castra, one camp (cf. § 137. b). The plural occurs also in the phrase ūnī et alterī, one party and the other (the ones and the others).
b. Duo,⁶⁷ two, and trēs, three, are thus declined:— NUMERALS

	M.	F.	N.	M., F.	N.
NOM.	duo	duae	duo	trēs	tria
GEN.	duōrum	duārum	duōrum	trium	trium
DAT.	duōbus	duābus	duōbus	tribus	tribus
ACC.	duōs (duo)	duās	duo	trēs (trīs)	tria
ABL.	duōbus	duābus	duōbus	tribus	tribus

NOTE.—Ambō, both, is declined like duo.

c. The hundreds, up to 1000, are adjectives of the First and Second Declensions, and are regularly declined like the plural of bonus.
d. Mīlle, a thousand, is in the singular an indeclinable adjective:—

mīlle modīs, in a thousand ways.

mīlle hominibus, with a thousand men.

mīlle trahēns variōs colōrēs (Aen. iv. 701), drawing out a thousand various colors.

In the plural it is used as a neuter noun, and is declined like the plural of sedīle (§ 69): mīlia, mīlium, mīlibus, etc.
NOTE.—The singular mīlle is sometimes found as a noun in the nominative and accusative: as, mīlle hominum mīsit, he sent a thousand (of) men; in the other cases rarely, except in connection with the same case of mīlia: as, cum octō mīlibus peditum mīlle equitum, with eight thousand foot and a thousand horse.

e. The ordinals are adjectives of the First and Second Declensions, and are regularly declined like bonus.

135. Cardinals and Ordinals have the following uses:—
a. In numbers below 100, if units precede tens, et is generally inserted: duo et vīgintī; otherwise et is omitted: vīgintī duo.
b. In numbers above 100 the highest denomination generally stand first, the next second, etc., as in English. Et is either omitted entirely, or stands between the two highest denominations:— mīlle (et) septingentī sexāgintā quattuor, 1764.
NOTE.—Observe the following combinations of numerals with substantives:—

ūnus et vīgintī mīlitēs, or vīgintī mīlitēs (et) ūnus, 21 soldiers.

duo mīlia quīngentī mīlitēs, or duo mīlia mīlitum et quīngentī, 2500 soldiers.

mīlitēs mīlle ducentī trīgintā ūnus, 1231 soldiers.

c. After mīlia the name of the objects enumerated is in the genitive:

duo mīlia hominum, two thousand men.⁶⁸

cum tribus mīlibus mīlitum, with three thousand soldiers.

mīlia passuum tria, three thousand paces (three miles).

d. For million, billion, trillion, etc., the Romans had no special word but these numbers were expressed by multiplication (cf. § 138. a). DISTRIBUTIVES
e. Fractions are expressed, as in English, by cardinals in the numerator and ordinals in the denominator. The feminine gender is used to agree with pars expressed or understood:— two-sevenths, duae septimae (sc. partēs); three-eighths, trēs octāvae (sc. partēs). One-half is dīmidia pars or dīmidium.
NOTE 1.—When the numerator is one, it is omitted and pars is expressed: one-third, tertia pars; one-fourth, quārta pars.

NOTE 2.—When the denominator is but one greater than the numerator, the numerator only is given: two-thirds, duae partēs; three-fourths, trēs partēs, etc.

NOTE 3.—Fractions are also expressed by special words derived from as, a pound: as, triēns, a third; bēs, two-thirds. See § 637.

Distributives

136. Distributive Numerals are declined like the plural of bonus.
NOTE.—These answer to the interrogative quotēnī, how many of each? or how many at a time?

1.	singulī, one by one	18.	octōnī dēnī or duo-	100.	centēnī
2.	bīnī, two by two		dēvīcēnī	200.	ducēnī
3.	ternī, trīnī	19.	novēnī dēnī or	300.	trecēnī
4.	quaternī		ūn-dēvīcēnī	400.	quadringēnī
5.	quīnī	20.	vīcēnī	500.	quīngēnī
6.	sēnī	21.	vīcēnī singulī, etc.	600.	sescēnī
7.	septēnī	30.	trīcēnī	700.	septingēnī
8.	octōnī	40.	quadrāgēnī	800.	octingēnī
9.	novēnī	50.	quīnquāgēnī	900.	nōngēnī
10.	dēnī	60.	sexāgēnī	1000.	mīllēnī
11.	ūndēnī	70.	septuāgēnī	2000.	bīna mīlia
12.	duodēnī	80.	octōgēnī	10,000.	dēna mīlia
13.	ternī dēnī, etc.	90.	nōnāgēnī	100,000.	centēna mīlia

137. Distributives are used as follows:—
a. In the sense of so many apiece or on each side: as, singula singulīs, one apiece (one each to each one); agrī septēna iūgera plēbī dīvīsa sunt, i.e. seven jugera to each citizen (seven jugera each), etc.
b. Instead of cardinals, to express simple number, when a noun plural in form but usually singular in meaning is used in a plural sense: as, bīna castra, two camps (duo castra would mean two forts). With such nouns trīnī, not ternī, is used for three: as, trīna (not terna) castra, three camps; terna castra means camps in threes.
c. In multiplication: as, bis bīna, twice two; ter septēnīs diēbus, in thrice seven days.
d. By the poets instead of cardinal numbers, particularly where pairs or sets are spoken of: as, bīna hastīlia, two shafts (two in a set). NUMERALS

Numeral Adverbs

138. The Numeral Adverbs answer the question quotiēn (quotiēs), how many times? how often?

1.	semel,once	12.	duodeciēns	40.	quadrāgiēns
2.	bis, twice	13.	terdeciēns	50.	quīnquāgiēns
3.	ter, thrice	14.	quaterdeciēns	60.	sexāgiēns
4.	quater	15.	quīndeciēns	70.	septuāgiēns
5.	quīnquiēns (-ēs)⁶⁹	16.	sēdeciēns	80.	octōgiēns
6.	sexiēns	17.	septiēsdeciēns	90.	nōnāgiēns
7.	septiēns	18.	duodēvīciēns	100.	centiēns
8.	octiēns	19.	ūndēvīciēns	200.	ducentiēns
9.	noviēns	20.	vīciēns	300.	trecentiēns
10.	deciēns	21.	semel vīciēns,⁷⁰ etc.	1000.	mīliēns
11.	ūndeciēns	30.	trīciēns	10,000.	deciēns mīliēs

a. Numeral Adverbs are used with mīlle to express the higher numbers:

ter et trīciēns (centēna mīlia) sēstertium, 3,300,000 sesterces (three and third times a hundred thousand sesterces).

vīciēs ac septiēs mīliēs (centēna mīlia) sēstertium, 2, -1pt 700,000,000 sesterces (twenty-seven thousand times a hundred thousand).

NOTE.—These large numbers are used almost exclusively in reckoning money, and centēna mīlia is regularly omitted (see § 634).

Other Numerals

139. The following adjectives are called Multiplicatives:—

simplex, single; duplex, double, twofold; triplex, triple, threefold; quadruplex, quinquiplex, septemplex, decemplex, centuplex, sēsquiplex (1½), multiplex, (manifold).

a. Proportionals are: duplus, triplus, quadruplus, octuplus, etc., twice great, thrice as great, etc.
b. Temporals: bīmus, trīmus, of two or three years' age; biennis, triennis, lasting two or three years; bimēstris, trimēstris, of two or three months; bīduum, a period of two days; biennium, a period of two years.
c. Partitives: bīnārius, ternārius, of two or three parts.
d. Other derivatives are: ūniō, unity ; bīniō, the two (of dice); prīmānus, of the first legion; prīmārius, of the first rank; dēnārius, a sum of 10 asses; bīnus (distributive), double, etc. PERSONAL PRONOUNS

PRONOUNS

140. Pronouns are used as Nouns or as Adjectives. They are divided into the following seven classes:—

1. Personal Pronouns: as, ego, I.

2. Reflexive Pronouns: as, sē, himself.

3. Possessive Pronouns: as, meus, my.

4. Demonstrative Pronouns: as, hīc, this; ille, that.

5. Relative Pronouns: as, quī, who.

6. Interrogative Pronouns: as, quis, who ?

7. Indefinite Pronouns: as, aliquis, some one.

141. Pronouns have special forms of declension.
NOTE.—These special forms are, in general, survivals of a very ancient form of declension differing from that of nouns.

Personal Pronouns

142. The Personal pronouns of the first person are ego, I, nōs, we; of the second person, tū, thou or you, vōs, ye or you. The personal pronouns of the third person — he, she, it, they — are wanting in Latin, a demonstrative being sometimes used instead.

143. Ego and tū are declined as follows:—

	FIRST PERSON
	Singular	Plural
NOM.	ego, I	nōs, we
GEN.	meī, of me	nostrum, nostrī, of us
DAT.	mihi (mī), to me	nōbīs, to us
ACC.	mē, me	nōs, us
ABL.	mē, by me	nōbīs, by us

	SECOND PERSON
NOM.	tū, thou or you	vōs, ye or you
GEN.	tuī, of thee or you	vestrum, vestrī; vostrum (-trī)
DAT.	tibi	vōbīs
ACC.	tē	vōs
ABL.	tē	vōbīs

a. The plural nōs is often used for the singular ego; the plural vōs is never so used for the singular tū. PRONOUNS
NOTE.—Old forms are genitive mīs, tīs; accusative and ablative mēd, tēd (cf. § 43. N.^1).

b. The forms nostrum, vestrum, etc., are used partitively:—

ūnusquisque nostrum, each one of us.

vestrum omnium, of all of you.

NOTE.—The forms of the genitive of the personal pronouns are really the genitives of the possessives: meī, tuī, suī, nostrī, vestrī, genitive singular neuter: nostrum, vestrum, genitive plural masculine or neuter. So in early and later Latin we find ūna vestrārum, one of you (women).

c. The genitives meī, tuī, suī, nostri, vestrī, are chiefly used objectively (§ 347):—

memor sīs nostrī, be mindful of us (me).

mē tuī pudet, I am ashamed of you.

d. Emphatic forms of tū are tūte and tūtemet (tūtimet). The other cases of the personal pronouns, excepting the genitive plural, are made emphatic by adding -met: as, egomet, vōsmet.
NOTE.—Early emphatic forms are mēpte and tēpte.

e. Reduplicated forms are found in the accusative and ablative singular: as, mēmē, tētē.
f. The preposition cum, with, is joined enclitically with the ablative: as, tēcum loquitur, he talks with you.

Reflexive Pronouns

144. Reflexive Pronouns are used in the Oblique Cases to refer to the subject of the sentence or clause in which they stand (see § 299): as, sē amat, he loves himself.
a. In the first and second persons the oblique cases of the Personal pronouns are used as Reflexives: as, mē videō, I see myself; tē laudās, you praise yourself; nōbīs persuādēmus, we persuade ourselves.
b. The Reflexive pronoun of the third person has a special form used only in this sense, the same for both singular and plural. It is the declined:—

	GEN.	suī, of himself, herself, itself, themselves
	DAT.	sibi, to himself, herself, itself, themselves
	ACC.	sē (sēsē), himself, herself, itself, themselves
	ABL.	sē (sēsē), [by ] himself, herself, itself, themselves

NOTE 1.—Emphatic and reduplicated forms of sē are made as in the personals (see § 143. d, e). The preposition cum is added enclitically: as, sēcum, with himself, etc.

NOTE 2.—An old form sēd occurs in the accusative and ablative.
DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS

Possessive Pronouns

145. The Possessive pronouns are:—

FIRST	PERSON.	meus, my	noster, our
SECOND	PERSON.	tuus, thy, your	vester, your
THIRD	PERSON.	suus, his, her, its	suus, their

These are really adjectives of the First and Second Declensions, and are so declined (see §§ 110–112). But meus has regularly mī (rarely meus) in the vocative singular masculine.
NOTE.—Suus is used only as a reflexive, referring to the subject. For a possessive pronoun of the third person not referring to the subject, the genitive of a demonstrative must be used. Thus, patrem suum occīdit, he killed his (own) father; but patrem êius occīdit, he killed his (somebody else's) father.

a. Emphatic forms in -pte are found in the ablative singular: suōpte.
b. A rare possessive cûius (quôius), -a, -um, whose, is formed from the genitive singular of the relative or interrogative pronoun (quī, quis). It may be either interrogative or relative in force according to its derivation, but is usually the former.
c. The reciprocals one another and each other are expressed by inter sē or alter … alterum:—

alter alterīus ōva frangit, they break each other's eggs (one ... of the other).

inter sē amant, they love one another (they love among themselves).

Demonstrative Pronouns

146. The Demonstrative Pronouns are used to point out or designate a person or thing for special attention, either with nouns as Adjectives or alone as Pronouns. They are:— hīc, this; is, ille, iste, that; with the Intensive ipse, self, and īdem, same;⁷¹ and are thus declined:—

				hīc, this
	SINGULAR				PLURAL
	M.	F.	N.		M.	F.	N.
NOM.	hīc	haec	hōc		hī	hae	haec
GEN.	hûius	hûius	hûius		hōrum	hārum	hōrum
DAT.	huic	huic	huic		hīs	hīs	hīs
ACC.	hunc	hanc	hōc		hōs	hās	haec
ABL.	hōc	hāc	hōc		hīs	hīs	hīs

PRONOUNS
NOTE 1.—Hīc is a compound of the stem ho- with the demonstrative enclitic -ce. In most of the cases final e is dropped, in some the whole termination. But in these latter it is sometimes retained for emphasis: as, hûius-ce, hīs-ce. In early Latin -c alone is retained in some of these (hōrunc). The vowel in hīc, hōc, was originally short, an perhaps this quantity was always retained. Ille and iste are sometimes found with the same enclitic: illic, illaec, illuc; also illoc. See a, p. 67.

NOTE 2.—For the dative and ablative plural of hīc the old form hībus is sometime found; haec occurs (rarely) for hae.

				is, that
	SINGULAR				PLURAL
	M.	F.	N.		M.	F.	N.
NOM.	is	ea	id		eī, iī (ī)	eae	ea
GEN.	êius	êius	êius		eōrum	eārum	eōrum
DAT.	eī	eī	eī		eīs, iīs (īs)	eīs, iīs (īs)	eīs, iīs (īs)
ACC.	eum	eam	id		eōs	eās	ea
ABL.	eō	eā	eō		eīs, iīs (īs)	eīs, iīs (īs)	eīs, iīs (īs)

NOTE 3.—Obsolete forms are eae (dat. fem.), and eābus or ībus (dat. plur.). For dative eī are found also eī and ei (monosyllabic); ei, eos, etc., also occur in the plural.

				ille, that
	SINGULAR				PLURAL
	M.	F.	N.		M.	F.	N.
NOM.	ille	illa	illud		illī	illae	illa
GEN.	illīus	illīus	illīus		illōrum	illārum	illōrum
DAT.	illī	illī	illī		illīs	illīs	illīs
ACC.	illum	illam	illud		illōs	illās	illa
ABL.	illō	illā	illō		illīs	illīs	illīs

Iste, ista, istud, that (yonder), is declined like ille.
NOTE 4.—Ille replaces an earlier ollus (olle), of which several forms occur.

NOTE 5.—Iste is sometimes found in early writers in the form ste etc. The first syllable of ille and ipse is very often used as short in early poetry.

NOTE 6.—The forms illī, istī (gen.), and illae, istae (dat.), are sometimes found; also the nominative plural istaece, illaece (for istae, illae). See a , p. 67.

				ipse, self
	SINGULAR				PLURAL
	M.	F.	N.		M.	F.	N.
NOM.	ipse	ipsa	ipsum		ipsī	ipsae	ipsa
GEN.	ipsīus	ipsīus	ipsīus		ipsōrum	ipsārum	ipsōrum
DAT.	ipsī	ipsī	ipsī		ipsīs	ipsīs	ipsīs
ACC.	ipsum	ipsam	ipsum		ipsōs	ipsās	ipsa
ABL.	ipsō	ipsā	ipsō		ipsīs	ipsīs	ipsīs

DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS
NOTE 7.—Ipse is compounded of is and -pse (a pronominal particle of uncertain origin: cf. § 145. a), meaning self. The former part was originally declined, as in reāpse (for rē eāpse), in fact. An old form ipsus occurs, with superlative ipsissimus, own self, used for comic effect.

NOTE 8.—The intensive -pse is found in the forms eapse (nominative), eumpse, eampse, eōpse, eāpse (ablative).

īdem, the same	SINGULAR			PLURAL
	M.	F.	N.	M.	F.	N.
NOM.	īdem	eădem	ĭdem	īdem (eī)	eaedem	eădem
GEN.	êiusdem	êiusdem	êiusdem	eōrundem	eārundem	eōrundem
DAT.	eīdem	eīdem	eīdem	eīsdem or īsdem
ACC.	eundem	eandem	ĭdem	eōsdem	eāsdem	eădem
ABL.	eōdem	eādem	eōdem	eīsdem or īsdem

NOTE 9.—īdem is the demonstrative is with the indeclinable suffix -dem. The masculine īdem is for †isdem; the neuter idem, however, is not for †iddem, but is a relic of an older formation. A final m of is is changed to n before d: as, eundem for eumdem, etc. The plural forms īdem, īsdem, are often written iīdem, iīsdem.

a. Ille and iste appear in combination with the demonstrative particle -c, shortened from -ce, in the following forms:—

SINGULAR
	M.	F.	N.	M.	F.	N.
NOM.	illic	illaec	illuc (illoc)	istic	istaec	istuc (istoc)
ACC.	illunc	illanc	illuc (illoc)	istunc	istanc	istuc (istoc)
ABL.	illōc	illāc	illōc	istōc	istāc	istōc
PLURAL
N., ACC.	—–	—–	illaec	—–	—–	istaec

NOTE 1.—The appended -ce is also found with pronouns in numerous combinations: as, hûiusce, hunce, hōrunce, hārunce, hōsce, hīsce (cf. § 146. N.^1), illīusce, īsce; also with the interrogative -ne, in hōcine, hōscine, istucine, illicine, etc.

NOTE 2.—By composition with ecce or em, behold ! are formed eccum (for ecce eum), eccam, eccōs, eccās; eccillum (for ecce illum); ellum (for em illum), ellam, ellōs, ellās; eccistam. These forms are dramatic and colloquial.

b. The combinations hûiusmodī (hûiuscemodī), êiusmodī, etc., are used as indeclinable adjectives, equivalent to tālis, such: as, rēs êiusmodī, such a thing (a thing of that sort: cf. § 345. a). For uses of the Demonstrative Pronouns, see §§ 296 ff. PRONOUNS

Relative Pronouns

147. The Relative Pronoun quī, who, which, is thus declined:—

	SINGULAR			PLURAL
	M.	F.	N.	M.	F.	N.
NOM.	quī	quae	quod	quī	quae	quae
GEN.	cûius	cûius	cûius	quōrum	quārum	quōrum
DAT.	cui	cui	cui	quibus	quibus	quibus
ACC.	quem	quam	quod	quōs	quās	quae
ABL.	quō	quā	quō	quibus	quibus	quibus

Interrogative and Indefinite Pronouns

148. The Substantive Interrogative Pronoun quis, who? quid, what? is declined in the Singular as follows:—

	M., F.	N.
NOM.	quis	quid
GEN.	cûius	cûius
DAT.	cui	cui
ACC.	quem	quid
ABL.	quō	quō

The Plural is the same as that of the Relative, quī, quae, quae.
a. The singular quis is either masculine or of indeterminate gender, but in old writers it is sometimes distinctly feminine.
b. The Adjective Interrogative Pronoun, quī, quae, quod, what kind of? what? which? is declined throughout like the Relative:—

SUBSTANTIVE	ADJECTIVE
quis vocat, who calls ?	quī homō vocat, what man calls ?
quid vidēs, what do you see ?	quod templum vidēs, what temple do you see?

NOTE.—But quī is often used without any apparent adjective force; and quis is very common as an adjective, especially with words denoting a person: as, quī nōminat mē? who calls my name ? quis diēs fuit ? what day was it ? quis homō ? what man? but often quī homō? what kind of man? nesciō quī sīs, I know not who you are.

c. Quisnam, pray, who ? is an emphatic interrogative. It has both substantive and adjective forms like quis, quī.

149. The Indefinite Pronouns quis, any one, and quī, any, are declined like the corresponding Interrogatives, but qua is commonly used for quae except in the nominative plural feminine:— COMPOUNDS OF QUIS AND QUĪ

SUBSTANTIVE:	quis, any one; quid, anything.
ADJECTIVE:	quī, qua (quae), quod, any.

a. The feminine forms qua and quae are sometimes used substantively.
b. The indefinites quis and quī are rare except after sī, nisi, nē, and num, and in compounds (see § 310. a, b).
NOTE.—After these particles quī is often used as a substantive and quis as an adjective (cf. § 148. b. N.).

Case-Forms of quī and quis

150. The Relative, Interrogative, and Indefinite Pronouns are originally of the same stem, and most of the forms are the same (compare § 147 with § 148). The stem has two forms in the masculine and neuter, quo-, qui-, and one for the feminine, quā-. The interrogative sense is doubtless the original one.
a. Old forms for the genitive and dative singular are quôius, quoi.
b. The form quī is used for the ablative of both numbers and all genders; but especially as an adverb (how, by which way, in any way), and in the combination quīcum, with whom, as an interrogative or an indefinite relative.
c. A nominative plural quēs (stem qui-) is found in early Latin. A dative and ablative quīs (stem quo-) is not infrequent, even in classic Latin.
d. The preposition cum is joined enclitically to all forms of the ablative, as with the personal pronouns (§ 143. f): as, quōcum, quīcum, quibuscum.
NOTE.—But occasionally cum precedes: as, cum quō (Iuv. iv. 9).

Compounds of quis and quī

151. The pronouns quis and quī appear in various combinations.
a. The adverb -cumque (-cunque) (cf. quisque) added to the relative makes an indefinite relative, which is declined like the simple word: as, quīcumque, quaecumque, quodcumque, whoever, whatever; cûiuscumque, etc.
NOTE.—This suffix, with the same meaning, may be used with any relative: as, quāliscumque, of whatever sort; quandōcumque (also rarely quandōque), whenever; ubicumque, wherever.

b. In quisquis, whoever, both parts are declined, but the only forms in common use are quisquis, quidquid (quicquid) and quōquō.
NOTE 1.—Rare forms are quemquem and quibusquibus; an ablative quīquī is sometimes found in early Latin; the ablative feminine quāquā is both late and rare. Cuicui occurs as a genitive in the phrase cuicui modī, of whatever kind. Other cases are cited, but have no authority. In early Latin quisquis is occasionally feminine.

NOTE 2.—Quisquis is usually substantive, except in the ablative quōquō, which is more commonly an adjective.
PRONOUNS
c. The indefinite pronouns quīdam, a certain (one); quīvīs, quīlibet, any you please, are used both as substantives and as adjectives. The first part is declined like the relative quī, but the neuter has both quid- (substantive) and quod- (adjective):—

	quīdam	quaedam	quiddam (quoddam)
	quīvīs	quaevīs	quidvīs (quodvīs)

Quīdam changes m to n before d in the accusative singular (quendam, M. quandam, F.) and the genitive plural (quōrundam, M., N.; quārundam, F.).
d. The indefinite pronouns quispiam, some, any, and quisquam, any at all are used both as substantives and as adjectives. Quispiam has feminine quaepiam (adjective), neuter quidpiam (substantive) and quodpiam (adjective) the plural is very rare. Quisquam is both masculine and feminine; the neuter is quidquam (quicquam), substantive only; there is no plural. Ūllus, -a, -um, is commonly used as the adjective corresponding to quisquam.
e. The indefinite pronoun aliquis (substantive), some one, aliquī (adjective), some, is declined like quis and quī, but aliqua is used instead of aliqua except in the nominative plural feminine:—

		SINGULAR
	M.	F.	N.
NOM.	aliquis (aliquī)	aliqua	aliquid (aliquod)
GEN.	alicûius	alicûius	alicûius
DAT.	alicui	alicui	alicui
ACC.	aliquem	aliquam	aliquid (aliquod)
ABL.	aliquō	aliquā	aliquō
		PLURAL
NOM.	aliquī	aliquae	aliqua
GEN.	aliquōrum	aliquārum	aliquōrum
DAT.	aliquibus	aliquibus	aliquibus
ACC.	aliquōs	aliquās	aliqua
ABL.	aliquibus	aliquibus	aliquibus

NOTE.—Aliquī is sometimes used substantively and aliquis as an adjective.

f. The indefinite pronoun ecquis (substantive), whether any one, ecquī (adjective), whether any, is declined like aliquis, but has either ecquae or ecqua in the nominative singular feminine of the adjective form.
NOTE.—Ecquis (ecquī) has no genitive singular, and in the plural occurs in nominative and accusative only.

g. The enclitic particle -que added to the interrogative gives a universal as, quisque, every one; uterque, each of two, or both. Quisque is declined CORRELATIVES like the interrogative quis, quī:— substantive, quisque, quidque; adjective, quīque, quaeque, quodque. In the compound ūnusquisque, every single one, both parts are declined (genitive unīuscûiusque), and they are sometimes written separately and even separated by other words:—

nē in ūnō quidem quōque (Lael. 92), not even in a single one.

h. The relative and interrogative have rarely a possessive adjective cûius (-a, -um), older quôius, whose; and a patrial cûiās (cûiāt-), of what country.
i. Quantus, how great, quālis, of what sort, are derivative adjectives from the interrogative. They are either interrogative or relative, corresponding respectively to the demonstratives tantus, tālis (§ 152). Indefinite compounds are quantuscumque and quāliscumque (see § 151. a).

Correlatives

152. Many Pronouns, Pronominal Adjectives, and Adverbs have corresponding demonstrative, relative, interrogative, and indefinite forms. Such parallel forms are called Correlatives. They are shown in the following table:—

DEMON.	REL.	INTERROG.	INDEF. REL.	INDEF.
is	quī	quis ?	quisquis	aliquis
that	who	who ?	whoever	some one
tantus	quantus	quantus ?	quantuscumque	aliquantus
so great	how (as) great	how great ?	however great	some
tālis	quālis	quālis ?	quāliscumque	—–
such	as	of what sort ?	of whatever kind
ibi	ubi	ubi ?	ubiubi	alicubi
there	where	where ?	wherever	somewhere
eō	quō	quō ?	quōquō	aliquō
thither	whither	whither ?	whithersoever	(to) somewhere
eā	quā	quā ?	quāquā	aliquā
that way	which way	which way ?	whithersoever	somewhere
inde	unde	unde ?	undecumque	alicunde
thence	whence	whence ?	whencesoever	from somewhere
tum	cum	quandō ?	quandōcumque	aliquandō
then	when	when ?	whenever	at some time
tot	quot	quot ?	quotquot	aliquot
so many	as	how many ?	however many	some, several
totiēns	quotiēns	quotiēns ?	quotiēnscumque	aliquotiēns
so often	as	how often ?	however often	at several times

CONJUGATION OF THE VERB

VERBS

CONJUGATION OF THE VERB

153. The inflection of the Verb is called its Conjugation.

Voice, Mood, Tense, Person, Number

154. Through its conjugation the Verb expresses Voice, Mood Tense, Person, and Number.
a. The Voices are two: Active and Passive.
b. The Moods are four: Indicative, Subjunctive, Imperative, and Infinitive.⁷²
NOTE.—The Indicative, Subjunctive, and Imperative are called Finite Moods in distinction from the Infinitive.

c. The Tenses are six, viz.:—

1. For continued action, Present, Imperfect, Future.

2. For completed action, Perfect, Pluperfect, Future Perfect.

The Indicative Mood has all six tenses, but the Subjunctive has no future or future perfect, and the Imperative has only the present and the future. The Infinitive has the present, perfect, and future.
d. The Persons are three: First, Second, and Third.
e. The Numbers are two: Singular and Plural.

Noun and Adjective Forms

155. The following Noun and Adjective forms are also included in the inflection of the Latin Verb:—
a. Four Participles,⁷³ viz.:— Active: the Present and Future Participles. Passive: the Perfect Participle and the Gerundive.⁷⁴
b. The Gerund: this is in form a neuter noun of the second declension used only in the oblique cases of the singular.
c. The Supine: this is in form a verbal noun of the fourth declension in the accusative (-um) and dative or ablative (-ū)⁷⁵ singular. VOICES AND MOODS

SIGNIFICATION OF THE FORMS OF THE VERB

Voices

156. The Active and Passive Voices in Latin generally correspond to the active and passive in English; but —
a. The passive voice often has a reflexive meaning:—

ferrō accingor, I gird myself with my sword.

Turnus vertitur, Turnus turns (himself).

induitur vestem, he puts on his (own) clothes.

NOTE.—This use corresponds very nearly to the Greek Middle voice, and is doubtless a survival of the original meaning of the passive (p. 76, footnote 2).

b. Many verbs are passive in form, but active or reflexive in meaning. These are called Deponents (§ 190):⁷⁶ as, hortor, I exhort; sequor, I follow.
c. Some verbs with active meaning have the passive form in the perfect tenses; these are called Semi-Deponents: as, audeō, audēre, ausus sum, dare.

Moods

157. The Moods are used as follows:—
a. The Indicative Mood is used for most direct assertions and interrogations: as,— valēsne ? valeō, are you well? I am well.
b. The Subjunctive Mood has many idiomatic uses, as in commands, conditions, and various dependent clauses. It is often translated by the English Indicative; frequently by means of the auxiliaries may, might, would, should;⁷⁷ sometimes by the (rare) Subjunctive; sometimes by the Infinitive; and often by the Imperative, especially in prohibitions. A few characteristic examples of its use are the following:—

eāmus, let us go; nē abeat, let him not depart.

adsum ut videam, I am here to see (that I may see).

tū nē quaesieris, do not thou inquire.

beātus sīs, may you be blessed.

quid morer, why should I delay?

nesciō quid scrībam, I know not what to write.

sī moneam, audiat, if I should warn, he would hear.

CONJUGATION OF THE VERB
c. The Imperative is used for exhortation, entreaty, or command; but the Subjunctive is often used instead (§§ 439, 450):—

līber estō, he shall be free.

nē ossa legitō, do not gather the bones.

d. The Infinitive is used chiefly as an indeclinable noun, as the subject or complement of another verb (§§ 452, 456. N.). In special constructions it takes the place of the Indicative, and may be translated by that mood in English (see Indirect Discourse, § 580 ff.).
NOTE.—For the Syntax of the Moods, see § 436 ff.

Participles

158. The Participles are used as follows:—
a. The Present Participle (ending in -ns) has commonly the same meaning and use as the English participle in -ing; as, vocāns, calling; legentēs, reading. (For its inflection, see egēns, § 118.)
b. The Future Participle (ending in -ūrus) is oftenest used to express what is likely or about to happen: as, rēctūrus, about to rule audītūrus, about to hear.
NOTE.—With the tenses of esse, to be, it forms the First Periphrastic Conjugation (see § 195): as, urbs est cāsūra, the city is about to fall; mānsūrus eram, I was going to stay.

c. The Perfect Participle (ending in -tus, -sus) has two uses:—
1. It is sometimes equivalent to the English perfect passive participle as, tēctus, sheltered; acceptus, accepted; ictus, having been struck; and often has simply an adjective meaning: as, acceptus, acceptable.
2. It is used with the verb to be (esse) to form certain tenses of the passive: as, vocātus est, he was (has been) called.
NOTE.—There is no Perfect Active or Present Passive Participle in Latin. For substitutes see §§ 492, 493.

d. The Gerundive (ending in -ndus), has two uses:—
1. It is often used as an adjective implying obligation, necessity, propriety (ought or must): as, audiendus est, he must be heard.
NOTE.—When thus used with the tenses of the verb to be (esse) it forms the Second Periphrastic Conjugation: dēligendus erat, he ought to have been chosen (§ 196).

2. In the oblique cases the Gerundive commonly has the same meaning as the Gerund (cf. § 159. a), though its construction is different. (For examples, see § 503 ff.) TENSES OF THE FINITE VERB

Gerund and Supine

159. The Gerund and Supine are used as follows:—
a. The Gerund is a verbal noun, corresponding in meaning to the English verbal noun in -ing (§ 502): as, loquendī causā, for the sake of speaking.
NOTE.—The Gerund is found only in the oblique cases. A corresponding nominative is supplied by the Infinitive: thus, scrībere est ūtile, writing (to write) is useful; but, ars scrībendī, the art of writing.

b. The Supine is in form a noun of the fourth declension (§ 94. b), found only in the accusative ending in -tum, -sum, and the dative or ablative ending in -tū, -sū. The Supine in -um is used after verbs and the Supine in -ū after adjectives (§§ 509, 510):—

vēnit spectātum, he came to see; mīrābile dictū, wonderful to tell.

Tenses of the Finite Verb

160. The Tenses of the Indicative have, in general, the same meaning as the corresponding tenses in English:—
a. Of continued action,

1. PRESENT: scrībō, I write, I am writing, I do write.

2. IMPERFECT: scrībēbam, I wrote, I was writing, I did write.

3. FUTURE: scrībam, I shall write.

b. Of completed action,

4. PERFECT: scrīpsī, I have written, I wrote.

5. PLUPERFECT: scrīpseram, I had written.

6. FUTURE PERFECT: scrīpserō, I shall have written.

161. The Perfect Indicative has two separate uses,— the Perfect Definite and the Perfect Historical (or Indefinite). 1. The Perfect Definite represents the action of the verb as completed in present time, and corresponds to the English perfect with have: as, scrīpsī, I have written. 2. The Perfect Historical narrates a simple act or state in past time without representing it as in progress or continuing. It corresponds to the English past or preterite and the Greek aorist: as, scrīpsit, he wrote.

162. The Tenses of the Subjunctive are chiefly used in dependent clauses, following the rule for the Sequence of Tenses; but have also special idiomatic uses (see Syntax).

For the use of Tenses in the Imperative, see §§ 448, 449.

CONJUGATION OF THE VERB

PERSONAL ENDINGS

163. Verbs have regular terminations⁷⁸ for each of the three Persons, both singular and plural, active and passive.⁷⁹ These are

	ACTIVE		PASSIVE
SINGULAR
1. -m (-ō):	am-ō, I love.	-r (-or):	amo-r, I am loved.
2. -s:	amā-s, thou lovest.	-ris (-re):	amā-ris, thou art loved.
3. -t:	ama-t, he loves.	-tur:	amā-tur, he is loved.
PLURAL
1. -mus:	amā-mus, we love.	-mur:	amā-mur, we are loved.
2. -tis:	amā-tis, you love.	-minī:	amā-minī, you are loved.
3. -nt:	ama-nt, they love.	-ntur:	ama-ntur, they are loved.

a. The Perfect Indicative active has the special terminations⁸⁰:—

SING. 1. -ī:	amāv-ī, I loved.
2. -is-tī:	amāv-is-tī, thou lovedst.
3. -i-t:	amāv-i-t, he loved.
PLUR. 1. -i-mus:	amāv-i-mus, we loved.
2. -is-tis:	amāv-is-tis, you loved.
3. -ērunt (-ēre):	amāv-ērunt (-ēre), they loved.

b. The Imperative has the following terminations:—

	PRESENT ACTIVE
	Singular		Plural
2. —:	amā, love thou.	-te:	amā-te, love ye.

FUTURE ACTIVE
2. -tō:	amā-tō, thou shalt love.	-tōte: amā-tōte, ye shall love.
3. -tō:	amā-tō, he shall love.	-ntō: ama-ntō, they shall love.
THE THREE STEMS PRESENT PASSIVE
	Singular	Plural
2. -re:	amā-re, be thou loved.	-minī: amā-minī, be ye loved.

FUTURE PASSIVE 2. -tor:	amā-tor, thou shalt be loved.	—–	—–
3. -tor:	amā-tor, he shall be loved.	-ntor:	ama-ntor, they shall be loved.

FORMS OF THE VERB

The Three Stems

164. The forms of the verb may be referred to three stems, called (1) the Present, (2) the Perfect, and (3) the Supine stem. 1. On the Present stem are formed — The Present, Imperfect, and Future Indicative, Active and Passive. The Present and Imperfect Subjunctive, Active and Passive. The Imperative, Active and Passive. The Present Infinitive, Active and Passive. The Present Participle, the Gerundive, and the Gerund. 2. On the Perfect stem are formed — The Perfect, Pluperfect, and Future Perfect Indicative Active. The Perfect and Pluperfect Subjunctive Active. The Perfect Infinitive Active. 3. On the Supine stem are formed⁸¹ —
a. The Perfect Passive Participle, which combines with the forms of the verb sum, be, to make — The Perfect, Pluperfect, and Future Perfect Indicative Passive. The Perfect and Pluperfect Subjunctive Passive. The Perfect Infinitive Passive.
b. The Future Active Participle, which combines with esse to make the Future Active Infinitive.
c. The Supine in -um and -ū. The Supine in -um combines with īrī to make the Future Passive Infinitive (§ 203. a).
NOTE.—The Perfect Participle with fore also makes a Future Passive Infinitive (as, amātus fore). For fore (futūrum esse) ut with the subjunctive, see § 569. 3. a.
CONJUGATION OF THE VERB

VERB-ENDINGS

165. Every form of the finite verb is made up of two parts: 1. The STEM (see § 24). This is either the root or a modification or development of it. 2. The ENDING, consisting of — 1. the Signs of Mood and Tense (see §§ 168, 169). 2. the Personal Ending (see § 163). Thus in the verb vocā-bā-s, you were calling, the root is VOC, modified into the verb-stem vocā-, which by the addition of the ending -bās becomes the imperfect tense vocābās; and this ending consists of the tense-sign bā- and the personal ending (-s) of the second person singular.

166. The Verb-endings, as they are formed by the signs for mood and tense combined with personal endings, are — VERB-ENDINGS

	IMPERATIVE
PRESENT		PRESENT
SING. 2. —–	PLUR. 2. -te	SING. 2. -re	PLUR. 2. -minī
FUTURE		FUTURE
2. -tō	2. -tōte	2. -tor
3. -tō	3. -ntō	3. -tor	3. -ntor

For convenience a table of the Noun and Adjective forms of the verb is here added.

		INFINITIVE
PRES.	-re (Pres. stem)		I, II, IV. -ri; III. -ī
PERF.	-isse (Perf. stem)		-tus (-ta, -tum) esse
FUT.	-tūrus (-a, -um) esse		-tum īrī

		PARTICIPLES
PRES.	-ns, -ntis		PERF.	-tus, -ta, -tum
FUT.	-tūrus, -a, -um		GER.	-ndus, -nda, -ndum

GERUND	SUPINE
-ndī, -ndō, -ndum, -ndō	-tum, -tū

CONJUGATION OF THE VERB

167. A long vowel is shortened before the personal endings -m (-r), -t, -nt (-ntur): as, ame-t (for older amē-t), habe-t (for habē-t) mone-nt, mone-ntur.

168. The tenses of the Present System are made from the Present Stem as follows:—⁸²
a. In the Present Indicative the personal endings are added directly to the present stem. Thus,— present stem arā-: arā-s, arā-mus, arā-tis.
b. In the Imperfect Indicative the suffix -bam, -bās, etc. (originally a complete verb) is added to the present stem: as, arā-bam, arā-bās, arā-bāmus.
NOTE.—The form †bam was apparently an aorist of the Indo-European root BHU (cf. fuī, futūrus, φύω, English be, been), and meant I was. This was added to a complete word, originally a case of a verbal noun, as in I was a-seeing; hence vidē-bam. The form probably began in the Second or Third Conjugation and was extended to the others. The a was at first long, but was shortened in certain forms (§ 167).

c. In the Future Indicative of the First and Second Conjugations a similar suffix, -bō, -bis, etc., is added to the present stem: as, arā-bō, arā-bis, monē-bō.
NOTE.—The form †bō was probably a present tense of the root BHU, with a future meaning, and was affixed to a noun-form as described in b. N.

d. In the Future Indicative of the Third and Fourth Conjugations the terminations -am, -ēs, etc. (as, teg-am, teg-ēs, audi-am, audi-ēs) are really subjunctive endings used in a future sense (see e). The vowel was original long throughout. For shortening, see § 167.
e. In the Present Subjunctive the personal endings were added to form of the present stem ending in ē- or ā-, which was shortened in certain forms (§ 167). Thus, ame-m, amē-s, tegā-mus, tega-nt.
NOTE 1.—The vowel ē (seen in the First Conjugation: as, am-ē-s) is an inherited subjunctive mood-sign. It appears to be the thematic vowel e (§ 174. 1) lengthened. The ā of the other conjugations (mone-ā-s, reg-ā-s, audi-ā-s) is of uncertain origin.

NOTE 2.—In a few irregular verbs a Present Subjunctive in -im, -īs, etc. occurs: as, sim, sīs, sīmus, velim, velīs, etc. This is an old optative, ī being a form of the Indo- European optative mood-sign yē- (cf. siem, siēs, siet, § 170. b. N.). The vowel has been shortened in the first and third persons singular and the third person plural.

f. In the Imperfect Subjunctive the suffix -rem, -rēs, etc. is added to the present stem: as, amā-rem, amā-rēs, monē-rem, tege-rem, audī-rem.
NOTE.—The stem element -rē- is of uncertain origin and is not found outside Italic. The r is doubtless the aorist sign s (cf. es-se-m, es-sē-s) changed to r between two vowels (§ 15. 4). The ē is probably the subjunctive mood-sign (see e).
VERB-ENDINGS

169. The tenses of the Perfect System in the active voice are made from the Perfect Stem as follows:—
a. In the Perfect Indicative the endings -ī, -istī, etc. are added directly to the perfect stem: as, amāv-istī, tēx-istis.
b. In the Pluperfect Indicative the suffix -eram, -erās, etc. is added to the perfect stem: as, amāv-eram, monu-erās, tēx-erat.
NOTE.—This seems to represent an older †-is-ām etc. formed on the analogy of the Future Perfect in -erō (older †-is-ō: see c below) and influenced by eram (imperfect of sum) in comparison with erō (future of sum).

c. In the Future Perfect the suffix -erō, -eris, etc. is added to the perfect stem: as, amāv-erō, monu-eris, tēx-erit.
NOTE.—This formation was originally a subjunctive of the s-aorist, ending probably in †-is-ō. The -is- is doubtless the same as that seen in the second person singular of the perfect indicative (vīd-is-tī), in the perfect infinitive (vīd-is-se), and in the pluperfect subjunctive (vīd-is-sem), s being the aorist sign and i probably an old stem vowel.

d. In the Perfect Subjunctive the suffix -erim, -eris, etc. is added to the perfect stem: as, amāv-erim, monu-eris, tēx-erit.
NOTE.—This formation was originally an optative of the s-aorist (-er- for older -is-, as in the future perfect, see c above). The i after r is the optative mood-sign ī shortened (see § 168. e. N.^2). Forms in -īs, -īt, -īmus, -ītis, are sometimes found. The shortening in -ĭs, -ĭmus, -ĭtis, is due to confusion with the future perfect.

e. In the Pluperfect Subjunctive the suffix -issem, -issēs, etc. is added to the perfect stem: as, amāv-issem, monu-issēs, tēx-isset.
NOTE.—Apparently this tense was formed on the analogy of the pluperfect indicative in †-is-ām (later -er-am, see b), and influenced by essem (earlier †essēm) in its relation to eram (earlier †esām).⁸³

The Verb Sum

170. The verb sum, be, is both irregular and defective, having no gerund or supine, and no participle but the future. Its conjugation is given at the outset, on account of its importance for the inflection of other verbs. VERB-ENDINGS

PRINCIPAL PARTS: Present Indicative sum, Present Infinitive esse,

Perfect Indicative fuī, Future Participle futūrus.

PRESENT STEM es- PERFECT STEM fu- SUPINE STEM fut-

		INDICATIVE		-2emSUBJUNCTIVE
PRESENT SING.	1.	sum, I am		sim⁸⁴
	2.	ĕs, thou art (you are)		sīs
	3.	est, he (she, it) is		sit
PLUR.	1.	sumus, we are		sīmus
	2.	estis, you are		sītis
	3.	sunt, they are		sint
IMPERFECT SING.	1.	eram, I was		essem
	2.	erās, you were		essēs
	3.	erat, he (she, it) was		esset
PLUR.	1.	erāmus, we were		essēmus
	2.	erātis, you were		essētis
	3.	erant, they were		essent
FUTURE SING.	1.	erō, I shall be
	2.	eris, you will be
	3.	erit, he will be
PLUR.	1.	erimus, we shall be
	2.	eritis, you will be
	3.	erunt, they will be
PERFECT SING.	1.	fuī, I was (have been)		fuerim
	2.	fuistī, you were		fueris
	3.	fuit, he was		fuerit
PLUR.	1.	fuimus, we were		fuerimus
	2.	fuistis, you were		fueritis
	3.	fuērunt, fuēre, they were		fuerint
PLUPERFECT SING.	1.	fueram, I had been		fuissem
	2.	fuerās, you had been		fuissēs
	3.	fuerat, he had been		fuisset
THE VERB SUM PLUR.	1.	fuerāmus, we had been		fuissēmus
	2.	fuerātis, you had been		fuissētis
	3.	fuerant, they had been		fuissent
FUTURE PERFECT SING.	1.	fuerō, I shall have been	PLUR. 1.	fuerimus, we shall have been
	2.	fueris, you will have been	2.	fueritis, you will have been
	3.	fuerit, he will have been	3.	fuerint, they will have been

IMPERATIVE

PRESENT	SING.	2. ĕs, be thou	PLUR.	2. este, be ye
FUTURE		2. estō, thou shalt be		2. estōte, ye shall be
		3. estō, he shall be		3. suntō, they shall be

INFINITIVE

PRESENT	esse, to be
PERFECT	fuisse, to have been
FUTURE	futūrus esse or fore, to be about to be
PARTICIPLE
FUTURE	futūrus, -a, -um, about to be

a. For essem, essēs, etc., forem, forēs, foret, forent, are often used; so fore for futūrus esse.
b. The Present Participle, which would regularly be †sōns,⁸⁵ appears in the adjective īn-sōns, innocent, and in a modified form in ab-sēns, prae-sēns. The simple form ēns is sometimes found in late or philosophical Latin as a participle or abstract noun, in the forms ēns, being; entia, things which are.
NOTE.—Old forms are:— Indicative: Future, escit, escunt (strictly an inchoative present, see § 263. 1).

Subjunctive: Present, siem, siēs, siet, sient; fuam, fuās, fuat, fuant; Perfect, fūvimus; Pluperfect, fūvisset.

The root of the verb sum is ES, which in the imperfect is changed to ER (see § 15.4), and in many forms is shortened to s. Some of its modifications, as found in several languages more or less closely related to Latin, may be seen in the following table,— the Sanskrit syām corresponding to the Latin sim (siem):—

SANSKRIT			GREEK	LATIN			-1em LITHUANIAN
a	s-mi	syām (optative)	έ̓μμι⁸⁶		s-um	sim (siem)	es-mi
a	s-i	syās	ἐσςί⁸⁶	e	s	sis (siēs)	es-i
a	s-ti	syāt	ἐστί	e	s-t	sit (siet)	es-ti
	s-mas	syāma	ἐσμέν		s-umus	sīmus	es-me
	s-tha	syāta	ἐστέ	e	s-tis	sītis	es-te
	s-anti	syus	ἐντί⁸⁶		s-unt	sint (sient)	es-ti

The Perfect and Supine stems, fu-, fut-, are kindred with the Greek έ̓φυ, and with the English be.

CONJUGATION OF THE VERB

The Four Conjugations

171. Verbs are classed in Four Regular Conjugations, distinguished by the stem-vowel which appears before -re in the Present Infinitive Active:—

CONJUGATION	INFINITIVE ENDING	STEM
First	-āre (amāre)	ā
Second	-ēre (monēre)	ē
Third	-ĕre (regĕre)	ĕ
Fourth	-īre (audīre)	ī

The Principal Parts

172. The Principal Parts of a verb, showing the three stem which determine its conjugation throughout, are —
1. The Present Indicative (as, amō) showing the Present Stem.
2. The Present Infinitive (as, amā-re)
3. The Perfect Indicative (as, amāv-ī), showing the Perfect Stem.
4. The neuter of the Perfect Participle (as, amāt-um), or, if that form is not in use, the Future Active Participle (amāt-ūrus), showing the Supine Stem.

173. The regular forms of the Four Conjugations are seen inthe following:— First Conjugation:—

Active, amō, amāre, amāvī, amātum, love.

Passive, amor, amārī, amātus.

Present Stem amā-, Perfect Stem amāv-, Supine Stem amāt-.

Second Conjugation:—

Active, dēleō, dēlēre, dēlēvī, dēlētum, blot out.

Passive, dēleor, dēlērī, dēlētus.

Present Stem dēlē-, Perfect Stem dēlēv-, Supine Stem dēlēt-.

In the Second conjugation, however, the characteristic ē- rarely appears in the perfect and perfect participle. The common type is, therefore:—

Active, moneō, monēre, monuī, monitum, warn.

Passive, moneor, monērī, monitus.

Present Stem monē-, Perfect Stem monu-, Supine Stem monit-.

PRESENT STEM Third Conjugation:—

Active, tegō, tegĕre, tēxī, tēctum, cover.

Passive, tegor, tegī, tēctus.

Present Stem tegĕ- Perfect Stem tēx-, Supine Stem tēct-.

Fourth Conjugation:—

Active, audiō, audīre, audīvī, audītum, hear.

Passive, audior, audīrī, audītus.

Present Stem audī-, Perfect Stem audīv-, Supine Stem audīt-.

a. In many verbs the principal parts take forms belonging to two or more different conjugations (cf. § 189):—

1, 2, domō, domāre, domuī, domitum, subdue.

2, 3, maneō, manēre, mānsī, mānsum, remain.

3, 4, petō, petĕre, petīvī, petītum, seek.

4, 3, vinciō, vincīre, vīnxī, vīnctum, bind.

Such verbs are referred to the conjugation to which the Present stem conforms.

Present Stem

174. The parent (Indo-European) speech from which Latin comes had two main classes of verbs:—
1. Thematic Verbs, in which a so-called thematic vowel (e/_o, in Latin i/_u) appeared between the root and the personal ending: as, leg-i-tis (for † leg-e-tes), leg-u-nt (for † leg-o-nti). ⁸⁷
2. Athematic Verbs, in which the personal endings were added directly to the root: as, es-t, es-tis (root ES)⁸⁸, dă-mus (dō, root DA), fer-t (ferō, root FER). Of the Athematic Verbs few survive in Latin, and these are counted as irregular, except such as have been forced into one of the four ``regular'' conjugations. Even the irregular verbs have admitted many forms of the thematic type. Of the Thematic Verbs a large number remain. These may be divided into two classes:—
1. Verbs which preserve the thematic vowel e or o (in Latin i or u) before the personal endings. — These make up the Third Conjugation. The present stem is formed in various ways (§ 176), but always ends in a short vowel e/_o (Latin i/_u. Examples are tegō (stem tege/_o-), sternimus (stem sterne/_o-) for †ster-no-mos, plectunt (stem plect e/_o-) for †plec-to-nti. So nōscō (stem gnōsce/_o) for gnō-sc-ō. Verbs like nōscō became the type for a large number of verbs in -scō, called inceptives (§ 263. 1).
2. Verbs which form the present stem by means of the suffix ye/_o-, which already contained the thematic vowel e/_o. — Verbs of this class in which any vowel (except u) came in contact with the suffix ye/_o- suffered contraction so as to present a long vowel ā-, ē-, ī-, at the end of the stem. In this contraction the thematic e/_o disappeared. These became the types of the First, Second, and Fourth conjugations respectively. In imitation of these long vowel-stems numerous verbs were formed by the Romans themselves (after the mode of formation had been entirely forgotten) from noun- and CONJUGATION OF THE VERB adjective-stems. This came to be the regular way of forming new verbs, just as in English the borrowed suffix -ize can be added to nouns and adjectives to make verbs: as, macadamize, modernize.

Thematic verbs of the second class in which a consonant or u came into contact with the suffix ye/_o- suffered various phonetic changes. Such verbs fall partly into the Third Conjugation, giving rise to an irregular form of it, and partly into the Fourth, and some have forms of both. Examples are:— (cōn) spiciō (-spicĕre) for †spekyō; veniō (venīre) for †(g) vem-yō; cupiō, cupĕre, but cupīvī; orior, orĭtur, but orīrī. Note, however, pluō (pluere) for †plu-yō; and hence, by analogy, acuō (acuere) for †acu-yō.

In all these cases many cross-analogies and errors as well as phonetic changes have been at work to produce irregularities. Hence has arisen the traditional system which is practically represented in §§ 175, 176.

175. The Present Stem may be found by dropping -re in the Present Infinitive:—

amā-re, stem amā-; monē-re, stem monē-; tegĕ-re, stem tegĕ-; audī-re, stem audī-.

176. The Present Stem is formed from the Root in all regular verbs in one of the following ways:—
a. In the First, Second, and Fourth conjugations, by adding a long vowel (ā-, ē-, ī-) to the root, whose vowel is sometimes changed: as, vocā-re (VOC), monē-re (MEN, cf. meminī), sopī-re (SOP).⁸⁹
NOTE.—Verb-stems of these conjugations are almost all really formed from noun-stems on the pattern of older formations (see § 174).

b. In the Third Conjugation, by adding a short vowel e/_o⁹⁰ to the root. In Latin this e/_o usually appears as i/_u, but e, is preserved in some forms. Thus, tegi-s (root TEG), ali-tis (AL), regu-nt (REG); but tegĕ-ris (tegĕ-re), alĕ-ris.
1. The stem-vowel e/_o (i/_u) may be preceded by n, t, or sc:⁹¹ as, tem-ni-tis, tem-nu-nt, tem-nĕ-ris (TEM); plec-ti-s (PLEC); crē-sci-tis (CRĒ).
2. Verbs in -iō of the Third Conjugation (as, capiō, capĕre) show in some forms an i before the final vowel of the stem: as, cap-i-unt (CAP), fug-i-unt (FUG).
c. The root may be changed—
1. By the repetition of a part of it (reduplication): as, gi-gn-e-re (GEN).
2. By the insertion of a nasal (m or n): as, find-e-re (FID), tang-e-re (TAG). PERFECT STEM
d. In some verbs the present stem is formed from a noun-stem in u-: as, statu-e-re (statu-s), aestu-ā-re (aestu-s); cf. acuō, acuere.⁹²
NOTE 1.—A few isolated forms use the simple root as a present stem: as, fer-re, fer-t; es-se; vel-le, vul-t. These are counted as irregular.

NOTE 2.—In some verbs the final consonant of the root is doubled before the stem-vowel: as, pell-i-tis (PEL), mitt-i-tis (MIT).

e. Some verbs have roots ending in a vowel. In these the present stem is generally identical with the root: as, da-mus (DA), flē-mus (stem flē-, root form unknown).⁹³ But others, as rui-mus (RU), are formed with an additional vowel according to the analogy of the verbs described in d.
NOTE.—Some verbs of this class reduplicate the root: as, si-st-e-re (STA, cf. stāre).

Perfect Stem

177. The Perfect Stem is formed as follows:—
a. The suffix v (u) is added to the verb-stem: as, vocā-v-ī, audī-v-ī; or to the root: as, son-u-ī (sonā-re, root SON), mon-u-ī (monē-re, MON treated as a root).⁹⁴
NOTE.—In a few verbs the vowel of the root is transposed and lengthened: as, strā-v-ī (sternō, STAR), sprē-v-ī (spernō, SPAR).

b. The suffix s is added to the root: as, carp-s-ī (CARP), tēx-ī (for tēg-s-ī, TEG).⁹⁵
NOTE.—The modifications of the present stem sometimes appear in the perfect: as, fīnx-ī (FIG, present stem fingĕ-), sānx-ī (SAC, present stem sancī-).

c. The root is reduplicated by prefixing the first consonant — generally with ĕ, sometimes with the root-vowel: as, ce-cid-ī (cadō, CAD), to-tond-ī (tondeō, TOND).
NOTE.—In fid-ī (for †fe-fid-ī, find-ō), scid-ī (for †sci-scid-ī, scindō), the reduplication has been lost, leaving merely the root.

d. The root vowel is lengthened, sometimes with vowel change: as, lēg-ī (lĕg-ō), ēm-ī (ĕm-ō), vīd-ī (vĭd-e-ō), fūg-ī (fŭg-i-ō), ēg-ī (ăg-ō).
e. Sometimes the perfect stem has the same formation that appears in the present tense: as, vert-ī (vert-ō), solv-ī (solv-ō).
f. Sometimes the perfect is formed from a lost or imaginary stem: as, petī-v-ī (as if from †peti-ō, †petī-re, PET). CONJUGATION OF THE VERB

Supine Stem

178. The Supine Stem may be found by dropping -um from the Supine. It is formed by adding t (or, by a phonetic change, s) —
a. To the present stem: as, amā-t-um, dēlē-t-um, audī-t-um.
b. To the root, with or without ĭ: as, cap-t-um (capiō, CAP), moni-t-um (moneō, MON used as root), cās-um (for †cad-t-um, CAD), lēc-t-um (LEG).
NOTE 1.—By phonetic change dt and tt become s (dēfēnsum, versum for †dē-fend-t-um, †vert-t-um); bt becomes pt (scrīp-t-um for †scrīb-t-um); gt becomes ct (rēc-t-um for †reg-t-um).⁹⁶

NOTE 2.—The modifications of the present stem sometimes appear in the supine: as, tīnc-t-um (tingō, TIG), tēn-s-um for †tend-t-um (ten-d-ō, TEN).

NOTE 3.—The supine is sometimes from a lost or imaginary verb-stem: as, petī-t-um (as if from †peti-ō, †petī-re, PET).

NOTE 4.—A few verbs form the supine stem in s after the analogy of verbs in d and t: as, fal-s-um (fallō), pul-s-um (pellō).

Forms of Conjugation

179. The forms of the several conjugations from which, by adding the verb-endings in § 166, all the moods and tenses can be made are as follows:—
a. The First Conjugation includes all verbs which add ā- to the root to form the present stem:⁹⁷ as, amā-re; with a few whose root ends in a (†for, fā-rī; flō, flā-re; nō, nā-re; stō, stā-re).
1. The stem-vowel ā- is lost before -ō: as, amō †āmā-(y)ō; and in the present subjunctive it is changed to ē: as, amē-s, amē-mus.
2. The perfect stem regularly adds v, the supine stem t, to the present stem: as, amā-v-ī, amā-t-um. For exceptions, see § 209. a.
b. The Second Conjugation includes all verbs which add ē- to the root to form the present stem: as, monē-re; with a few whose root ends in ē; as, fle-ō, flē-re; ne-ō, nē-re; re-or, rē-rī (cf. § 176. e).
1. In the present subjunctive ā is added to the verb-stem: as, mone-ā-s mone-ā-mus (cf. § 168. e).
2. A few verbs form the perfect stem by adding v (u), and the supine stem by adding t, to the present stem: as, dēlē-v-ī, dēlē-t-um. But most form the perfect stem by adding v (u) to the root, and the supine stem by adding t to a weaker form of the present stem, ending in ĭ: as, mon-u-ī, monĭ-t-um. For lists, see § 210. FORMS OF CONJUGATION
c. The Third Conjugation includes all verbs (not irregular, see § 197) which add ĕ- to the root to form the present stem: as, tegĕ-re, capĕ-re; with a few whose root ends in e: as, se-rĕ-re for † se-se-re (reduplicated from SE, cf. sătum).
1. The stem-vowel ĕ is regularly lost before -ō, and becomes u⁹⁸ before -nt and ĭ before the other endings of the indicative and imperative: as, teg-ō, tegi-t, tegu-nt; in the imperfect indicative it becomes ē: as, tegē-bam, tegē-bās, etc.; in the future, ē: as, tegē-s (except in the first person singular, tega-m, tega-r); in the present subjunctive, ā: as, tegā-s. Verbs in -iō lose the i before a consonant and also before ĭ, ī, and ĕ (except in the future, the participle, the gerund, and the gerundive). Thus,— capi-at, capi-unt, capi-ēbat, capi-ēs, capi-et, capi-ent; but, cap-it (not †capi-it), cap-eret.
2. All varieties of perfect and supine stems are found in this conjugation. See lists, § 211. The perfect is not formed from the present stem, but from the root.
d. The Fourth Conjugation includes all verbs which add ī- to the root to form the present stem: as, audī-re.⁹⁹ In these the perfect and supine stems regularly add v, t, to the verb-stem: as, audī-v-ī, audī- t-um.¹⁰⁰ Endings like those of the third conjugation are added in the third person plural of the present (indicative and imperative), in the imperfect and future indicative, and in the present subjunctive: as, audi-unt, audi-ēbat, audi-ētis, audi-at, the i being regularly short before a vowel.
e. The Present Imperative Active (second person singular) is the same as the present stem: as, amā, monē, tegĕ, audī. But verbs in -iō of the third conjugation omit i: as, capĕ (not †capie).
f. The tenses of completed action in the Active voice are all regularly formed by adding the tense-endings (given in § 166) to the perfect stem: as, amāv-ī, amāv-eram, amāv-erō, amāv-erim, amāv-issem, amāv-isse.
g. The tenses of completed action in the Passive voice are formed by adding to the perfect participle the corresponding tenses of continued action of the verb esse: as, perfect amātus sum; pluperfect amātus eram, etc. CONJUGATION OF THE VERB

Synopsis of the Verb

180. The following synopsis shows the forms of the verb arranged according to the three stems (§ 164). Amō, a regular verb of the first conjugation, is taken as a type. PRINCIPAL PARTS: Active, amō, amāre, amāvī, amātum. Passive, amor, amārī, amātus sum. PRESENT STEM amā- PERFECT STEM amāv- SUPINE STEM amāt-

ACTIVE		PASSIVE
		Present stem, amā-
		INDICATIVE
PRES.	amō		amo-r
IMPERF.	amā-bam		amā-bar
FUT.	amā-bō		amā-bor
		SUBJUNCTIVE
PRES.	ame-m		ame-r
IMPERF.	amā-rem		amā-rer
		IMPERATIVE
PRES.	amā		amā-re
FUT.	amā-tō		amā-tor
		INFINITIVE
PRES.	amā-re		amā-rī
		PARTICIPLE
PRES.	amā-ns		GERUNDIVE ama-ndus
GERUND	amama-ndī
Perfect stem, amāv-			Supine stem, amāt-
		INDICATIVE
PERF.	amāv-ī		amāt-us sum
PLUPERF.	amāv-eram		amāt-us eram
FUT. PERF.	amāv-erō		amāt-us erō
		SUBJUNCTIVE
PERF.	amāv-erim		amāt-us sim
PLUPERF.	amāv-issem		amāt-us essem
		INFINITIVE
PERF.	amāv-isse
		Supine stem, amāt-
		INFINITIVE
PERF.			amāt-us esse
FUT.	amāt-ūrus esse		amāt-um īrī
		PARTICIPLE
FUT.	amāt-urus		PERF. amāt-us
SUPINE	amāt-um	amāt-ū

PECULIARITIES OF CONJUGATION

Peculiarities of Conjugation

181. In tenses formed upon the Perfect Stem, v between two vowels is often lost and contraction takes place.
a. Perfects in -āvī, -ēvī, -ōvī, often contract the two vowels into ā, ē, ō, respectively: as, amāsse for amāvisse; amārim for amāverim; amāssem for amāvissem; cōnsuērat for cōnsuēverat; flēstis for flēvistis; nōsse for nōvisse. So in perfects in -vī, where the v is a part of the present stem: as, commōrat for commōverat.
NOTE.—The first person of the perfect indicative (as, amāvī) is never contracted, the third very rarely.

b. Perfects in -īvī regularly omit v, but rarely contract the vowels except before st and ss, and very rarely in the third person perfect:—

audieram for audīveram; audīsse for audīvisse; audīstī for audīvistī; abiit for abīvit; abiērunt for abīvērunt.

NOTE 1.—The forms sīris, sīrit, sīrītis, sīrint, for sīveris etc. (from sīverō or sīverim), are archaic.

NOTE 2.—In many forms from the perfect stem is, iss, sis, are lost in like manner, when s would be repeated if they were retained: as, dīxtī for dīxistī (x c̄s); trāxe for trāxisse; ēvāstī for ēvāsistī; vīxet for vīxisset; ērēpsēmus for ērēpsissēmus; dēcēsse for dēcessisse. These forms belong to archaic and colloquial usage.

182. Four verbs,— dīcō, dūcō, faciō, ferō,— with their compounds, drop the vowel-termination of the Imperative, making dīc, dūc, făc, fĕr; but compounds in -ficiō retain it, as, cōnfice.
NOTE.—The imperative forms dīce, dūce, face (never fere), occur in early Latin.

a. For the imperative of sciō, the future form scītō is always used in the singular, and scītōte usually in the plural.

183. The following ancient forms are found chiefly in poetry: 1. In the fourth conjugation, -ībam, -ībō, for -iēbam, -iam (future). These forms are regular in eō, go (§ 203). 2. In the present subjunctive, -im: as in duim, perduim, retained in religious formulas and often in comedy. This form is regular in sum and volō and their compounds (§§ 170, 199). 3. In the perfect subjunctive and future perfect indicative, -sim, -sō: as, faxim, faxō, iussō, recēpsō ( f̄ēcerim etc.); ausim ( āusus sim). 4. In the passive infinitive, -ier: as, vocārier for vocārī; agier for agī. 5. A form in -āssō, -āssere is found used as a future perfect: as, amāssis, from amō; levāssō, from levō; impetrāssere, from impetrō; iūdicāssit, from iūdicō (cf. § 263. 2. b. N.). CONJUGATION OF THE VERB

FIRST CONJUGATION (ā-STEMS) — ACTIVE VOICE

184. The First Conjugation includes all verbs which add ā- to the root to form the present stem, with a few whose root ends in a-. The verb amō, love, is conjugated as follows:— PRINCIPAL PARTS: Present Indicative amō, Present Infinitive amāre, Perfect Indicative amāvī, Supine amātum. PRESENT STEM amā-PERFECT STEM amāv-SUPINE STEM amāt-

INDICATIVE	SUBJUNCTIVE
PRESENT
amō,¹⁰¹ I love, am loving, do love	amem¹⁰²
amās, thou lovest (you love)	amēs
amat, he (she, it) loves	amet
amāmus, we love	amēmus
amātis, you love	amētis
amant, they love	ament
IMPERFECT
amābam, I loved, was loving, did love	amārem
amābās, you loved	amārēs
amābat, he loved	amāret
amābāmus, we loved	amārēmus
amābātis, you loved	amārētis
amābant, they loved	amārent
FUTURE
amābō, I shall love
amābis, you will love
amābit, he will love
amābimus, we shall love
amābitis, you will love
amābunt, they will love

INDICATIVE	SUBJUNCTIVE
PERFECT
CONJUGATION OF THE VERB amāvī, I loved, have loved	amāverim
amāvistī, you loved	amāveris
amāvit, he loved	amāverit
amāvimus, we loved	amāverimus
amāvistis, you loved	amāveritis
amāvērunt (-ēre), they loved	amāverint
PLUPERFECT
amāveram, I had loved	amāvissem
amāverās, you had loved	amāvissēs
amāverat, he had loved	amāvisset
amāverāmus, we had loved	amāvissēmus
amāverātis, you had loved	amāvissētis
amāverant, they had loved	amāvissent
FUTURE PERFECT
Singular	Plural
amāverō, I shall have loved	amāverimus, we shall have loved
amāveris, you will have loved	amāveritis, you will have loved
amāverit, he will have loved	amāverint, they will have loved
IMPERATIVE PRESENT amā, love thou	amāte, love ye
FUTURE amātō, thou shalt love	amātōte, ye shall love
amātō, he shall love	amantō, they shall love
INFINITIVE
PRESENT amāre, to love
PERFECT amāvisse or amāsse, to have loved
FUTURE amātūrus esse, to be about to love
PARTICIPLES PRESENT amāns, -antis, loving
FUTURE amātūrus, -a, -um, about to love

GERUND GENITIVE amandī, of loving	ACCUSATIVE amandum, loving
DATIVE amandō, for loving	ABLATIVE amandō, by loving
SUPINE amātum, to love	amātū, to love

CONJUGATION OF THE VERB

FIRST CONJUGATION (ā-STEMS)—PASSIVE VOICE

PRINCIPAL PARTS: Present Indicative amor, Present Infinitive amārī, Perfect Indicative amātus sum.¹⁰³

PRESENT STEM amā-	SUPINE STEM amāt-
INDICATIVE		SUBJUNCTIVE
PRESENT
amor,¹⁰⁴ I am loved, being loved		amer¹⁰⁵
amāris (-re), you are loved		amēris (-re)
amātur, he is loved		amētur
amāmur, we are loved		amēmur
amāminī, you are loved		amēminī
amantur, they are loved		amentur
IMPERFECT
amābar, I was loved, being loved		amārer
amābāris (-re), you were loved		amārēris (-re)
amābātur, he was loved		amārētur
amābāmur, we were loved		amārēmur
amābāminī, you were loved		amārēminī
amābantur, they were loved		amārentur

FUTURE

amābor, I shall be loved

amāberis (-re), you will be loved

amābitur, he will be loved

amābimur, we shall be loved

amābiminī, you will be loved

amābuntur, they will be loved

CONJUGATION OF THE VERB

INDICATIVE		SUBJUNCTIVE
PERFECT
amātus sum,¹⁰⁶ I was loved		amātus sim¹⁰⁶
amātus es, you were loved		amātus sīs
amātus est, he was loved		amātus sit
amātī sumus, we were loved		amātī sīmus
amātī estis, you were loved		amātī sītis
amātī sunt, they were loved		amātī sint
PLUPERFECT
amātus eram,¹⁰⁶I had been loved		amātus essem¹⁰⁶
amātus erās, you had been loved		amātus essēs
amātus erat, he had been loved		amātus esset
amātī erāmus, we had been loved		amātī essēmus
amātī erātis, you had been loved		amātī essētis
amātī erant, they had been loved		amātī essent
FUTURE PERFECT
Singular		Plural
amātus erō,¹⁰⁶I shall have been loved		amātī erimus, we shall have, etc.
amātus eris, you will have, etc.		amātī eritis, you will have, etc.
amātus erit, he will have, etc.		amātī erunt, they will have, etc.

IMPERATIVE
PRESENT	amāre, be thou loved	amāminī, be ye loved
FUTURE	amātor, thou shalt be loved	—–
	amātor, he shall be loved	amantor, they shall be loved

INFINITIVE
PRESENT	amārī, to be loved
PERFECT	amātus esse, to have been loved
FUTURE	amātum īrī, to be about to be loved

PARTICIPLES
PERFECT	amātus, -a, -um, loved (beloved, or having been loved)
FUTURE (GERUNDIVE)	amandus, -a, -um, to-be-loved (lovely)

CONJUGATION OF THE VERB

SECOND CONJUGATION (ē-STEMS)

185. The Second Conjugation includes all verbs which add ē- to the root to form the present stem, with a few whose root ends in ē-.

PRINCIPAL PARTS: Active, moneō, monēre, monuī, monitum;

Passive, moneor, monērī, monitus sum.

PRESENT STEM monē-

PERFECT STEM monu-

SUPINE STEM monit-

ACTIVE VOICE		PASSIVE VOICE
INDICATIVE	SUBJUNCTIVE	INDICATIVE	SUBJUNCTIVE
PRESENT		PRESENT
moneō, I warn	moneam¹⁰⁷	moneor	monear¹⁰⁷
monēs, you warn	moneās	monēris (-re)	moneāris (-re)
monet, he warns	moneat	monētur	moneātur
monēmus	moneāmus	monēmur	moneāmur
monētis	moneātis	monēminī	moneāminī
monent	moneant	monentur	moneantur
IMPERFECT		IMPERFECT
monēbam	monērem	monēbar	monērer
monēbās	monērēs	monēbāris (-re)	monērēris (-re)
monēbat	monēret	monēbātur	monērētur
monēbāmus	monērēmus	monēbāmur	monērēmur
monēbātis	monērētis	monēbāminī	monērēminī
monēbant	monērent	monēbantur	monērentur
FUTURE		FUTURE
monēbō		monēbor
monēbis		monēberis (-re)
monēbit		monēbitur
monēbimus		monēbimur
monēbitis		monēbiminī
monēbunt		monēbuntur
SECOND CONJUGATIONACTIVE VOICE		PASSIVE VOICE
INDICATIVE	SUBJUNCTIVE	INDICATIVE	SUBJUNCTIVE
PERFECT		PERFECT
monuī	monuerim	monitus sum¹⁰⁷	monitus sim¹⁰⁷
monuistī	monueris	monitus es	monitus sīs
monuit	monuerit	monitus est	monitus sit
monuimus	monuerimus	monitī sumus	monitī sīmus
monuistis	monueritis	monitī estis	monitī sītis
monuērunt (-re)	monuerint	monitī sunt	monitī sint
PLUERFECT		PLUERFECT
monueram	monuissem	monitus eram¹⁰⁷	monitus essem¹⁰⁷
monuerās	monuissēs	monitus erās	monitus essēs
monuerat	monuisset	monitus erat	monitus esset
monuerāmus	monuissēmus	monitī erāmus	monitī essēmus
monuerātis	monuissētis	monitī erātis	monitī essētis
monuerant	monuissent	monitī erant	monitī essent
FUTURE PERFECT		FUTURE PERFECT
monuerō		monitus erō¹⁰⁸
monueris		monitus eris
monuerit		monitus erit
monuerimus		monitī erimus
monueritis		lrm monitī eritis
monuerint		monitī erunt

IMPERATIVE
	Singular	Plural		Singular	Plural
PRESENT	monē	monēte	PRESENT	monēre	monēminī
FUTURE	monētō	monētōte	FUTURE	monētor	—
	monētō	monentō		monētor	monentor
INFINITIVE PRESENT	monēre		monērī
PERFECT	monuisse		monitus esse
FUTURE	monitūrus esse		monitum īrī
PARTICIPLES PRESENT	monēns, -entis		PERFECT	monitus, -a, -um
FUTURE	monitūrus, -a, -um		GERUNDIVE	monendus, -a, -um

GERUND	SUPINE
monendī, -dō, -dum, -dō	monitum, monitū

CONJUGATION OF THE VERB

THIRD CONJUGATION (ĕ-STEMS)

186. The Third Conjugation includes all verbs (not irregular, see § 197) which add ĕ to the root to form the present stem, with a few whose root ends in ĕ-.

PRINCIPAL PARTS: Active, tegō, tegĕre, tēxī, tēctum;

Passive, tegor, tegī, tēctus sum.

PRESENT STEM tege-

PERFECT STEM tēx-¹⁰⁹

SUPINE STEM tēct-

ACTIVE VOICE		PASSIVE VOICE
INDICATIVE	SUBJUNCTIVE	INDICATIVE	SUBJUNCTIVE
PRESENT		PRESENT
tegō,¹¹⁰ I cover	tegam¹¹⁰	tegor¹¹⁰	tegar¹¹⁰
tegis, you cover	tegās	tegeris (-re)	tegāris (-re)
tegit, he covers	tegat	tegitur	tegātur
tegimus	tegāmus	tegimur	tegāmur
tegitis	tegātis	tegiminī	tegāminī
tegunt	tegant	teguntur	tegantur
IMPERFECT		IMPERFECT
tegēbam	tegerem	tegēbar	tegerer
tegēbās	tegerēs	tegēbāris (-re)	tegerēris (-re)
tegēbat	tegeret	tegēbātur	tegerētur
tegēbāmus	tegerēmus	tegēbāmur	tegerēmur
tegēbātis	tegerētis	tegēbāminī	tegerēminī
tegēbant	tegerent	tegēbantur	tegerentur
FUTURE		FUTURE
tegam¹¹⁰		tegar¹¹⁰
tegēs		tegēris (-re)
teget		tegētur
tegēmus		tegēmur
tegētis		tegēminī
tegent		tegentur

THIRD CONJUGATION

Active Voice		Passive Voice
INDICATIVE	SUBJUNCTIVE	INDICATIVE	SUBJUNCTIVE
PERFECT		PERFECT
tēxī	tēxerim	tēctus sum¹¹¹	tēctus sim¹¹¹
tēxistī	tēxeris	tēctus es	tēctus sīs
tēxit	tēxerit	tēctus est	tēctus sit
tēximus	tēxerimus	tēctī sumus	tēctī sīmus
tēxistis	tēxeritis	tēctī estis	tēctī sītis
tēxērunt (-re)	tēxerint	tēctī sunt	tēctī sint
PLUPERFECT		PLUPERFECT
tēxeram	tēxissem	tēctus eram¹¹¹	tēctus essem¹¹¹
tēxerās	tēxissēs	tēctus erās	tēctus essēs
tēxerat	tēxisset	tēctus erat	tēctus esset
tēxerāmus	tēxissēmus	tēctī erāmus	tēctī essēmus
tēxerātis	tēxissētis	tēctī erātis	tēctī essētis
tēxerant	tēxissent	tēctī erant	tēctī essent
FUTURE PERFECT		FUTURE PERFECT
tēxerō		tēctus erō¹¹¹
tēxeris		tēctus eris
tēxerit		tēctus erit
tēxerimus		tēctī erimus
tēxeritis		tēctī eritis
tēxerint		tēctī erunt

		IMPERATIVE
	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural
PRESENT	tege	tegite	tegere	tegiminī
FUTURE	tegitō	tegitōte	tegitor	—–
	tegitō	teguntō	tegitor	teguntor

		INFINITIVE
PRESENT	tegere		tegī
PERFECT	tēxisse		tēctus esse
FUTURE	tēctūrus esse		tēctum īrī
		PARTICIPLES
PRESENT	tegēns, -entis	PERFECT	tēctus, -a, -um
FUTURE	tēctūrus, -a, -um	GERUNDIVE	tegendus (-undus)

GERUND	SUPINE
tegendī, -dō, -dum, -dō	tēctum, tēctū

CONJUGATION OF THE VERB

FOURTH CONJUGATION (ī-STEMS)

187. The Fourth Conjugation includes all verbs which add ī- to the root to form the present stem. PRINCIPAL PARTS: Active, audiō, audīre, audīvī, audītum; Passive, audior, audīrī, audītus sum. PRESENT STEM audī- PERFECT STEM audīv- SUPINE STEM audīt-

ACTIVE VOICE		PASSIVE VOICE
INDICATIVE	SUBJUNCTIVE	INDICATIVE	SUBJUNCTIVE
PRESENT		PRESENT
audiō, I hear	audiam¹¹²	audior	audiar¹¹²
audīs, you hear	audiās	audīris (-re)	audiāris (-re)
audit, he hears	audiat	audītur	audiātur
audīmus	audiāmus	audīmur	audiāmur
audītis	audiātis	audīminī	audiāminī
audiunt	audiant	audiuntur	audiantur
IMPERFECT		IMPERFECT
audiēbam¹¹²	audīrem	audiēbar¹¹²	audīrer
audiēbās	audīrēs	audiēbāris (-re)	audīrēris (-re)
audiēbat	audīret	audiēbātur	audīrētur
audiēbāmus	audīrēmus	audiēbāmur	audīrēmur
audiēbātis	audīrētis	audiēbāminī	audīrēminī
audiēbant	audīrent	audiēbantur	audīrentur
FUTURE		FUTURE
audiam¹¹²		audiar¹¹²
audiēs		audiēris (-re)
audiet		audiētur
audiēmus		audiēmur
audiētis		audiēminī
audient		audientur
FOURTH CONJUGATION ACTIVE VOICE		PASSIVE VOICE
INDICATIVE	SUBJUNCTIVE	INDICATIVE	SUBJUNCTIVE
PERFECT		PERFECT
audīvī	audīverim	audītus sum¹¹³	audītus sim
audīvistī	audīveris	audītus es	audītus sīs
audīvit	audīverit	audītus est	audītus sit
audīvimus	audīverimus	audītī sumus	audītī sīmus
audīvistis	audīveritis	audītī estis	audītī sītis
audīvērunt (-re)	audīverint	audītī sunt	audītī sint
PLUPERFECT		PLUPERFECT
audīveram	audīvissem	audītus eram¹¹³	audītus essem¹¹³
audīverās	audīvissēs	audītus erās	audītus essēs
audīverat	audīvisset	audītus erat	audītus esset
audīverāmus	audīvissēmus	audītī erāmus	audītī essēmus
audīverātis	audīvissētis	audītī erātis	audītī essētis
audīverant	audīvissent	audītī erant	audītī essent
FUTURE PERFECT		FUTURE PERFECT
audīverō		audītus erō¹¹³
audīveris		audītus eris
audīverit		audītus erit
audīverimus		audītī erimus
audīveritis		audītī eritis
audīverint		audītī erunt

		IMPERATIVE
	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural
PRESENT	audī	audīte	audīre	audīminī
FUTURE	audītō	audītōte	audītor	—–
	audītō	audiuntō	audītor	audiuntor

	INFINITIVE
PRESENT	audīre	audīrī
PERFECT	audīvisse	audītus esse
FUTURE	audītūrus esse	audītum īrī
	PARTICIPLES
PRESENT	audiēns, -ientis	PERFECT	audītus, -a, -um
FUTURE	audītūrus, -a, -um	GERUNDIVE	audiendus, -a, -um

GERUND	SUPINE
audiendī, -dō, -dum, -dō	audītum, audītū

CONJUGATION OF THE VERB

VERBS IN -iō OF THE THIRD CONJUGATION

188. Verbs of the Third Conjugation in -iō have certain forms of the present stem like the fourth conjugation. They lose the i of the stem before a consonant and also before ĭ, ī, and ĕ (except in the future, the participle, the gerund, and the gerundive).¹¹⁴ Verbs of this class are conjugated as follows:— PRINCIPAL PARTS: Active, capiō, capĕre, cēpī, captum; Passive, capior, capī, captus sum. PRESENT STEM capie- (cape-) PERFECT STEM cēp- SUPINE STEM capt-

ACTIVE VOICE		PASSIVE VOICE
INDICATIVE	SUBJUNCTIVE	INDICATIVE	SUBJUNCTIVE
PRESENT		PRESENT
capiō, I take	capiam	capior	capiar
capis, you take	capiās	caperis (-re)	capiāris (-re)
capit, he takes	capiat	capitur	capiātur
capimus	capiāmus	capīmur	capiāmur
capitis	capiātis	capiminī	capiāminī
capiunt	capiant	capiuntur	capiantur
IMPERFECT		IMPERFECT
capiēbam	caperem	capiēbar	caperer
FUTURE		FUTURE
capiam		capiar
capiēs		capiēris (-re)
capiet, etc.		capiētur, etc.
PERFECT		PERFECT
cēpī	cēperim	captus sum	captus sim
PLUPERFECT		PLUPERFECT
cēperam	cēpissem	captus eram	captus essem
FUTURE PERFECT		FUTURE PERFECT
cēperō			captus erō
DEPONENT VERBS IMPERATIVE
PRESENT		PRESENT
Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural
cape	capite	capere	capiminī
FUTURE		FUTURE
capitō	capitōte	capitor	—–
capitō	capiunto	capitor	capiuntor

INFINITIVE PRESENT	capere		capī
PERFECT	cēpisse		captus esse
FUTURE	captūrus esse		captum īrī
PARTICIPLES PRESENT	capiēns, -ientis	PERFECT	captus, -a, -um
FUTURE	captūrus, -a, -um	GERUNDIVE	capiendus, -a, -um

GERUND	SUPINE
capiendī, -dō, -dum, -dō	captum, -tū

Parallel Forms

189. Many verbs have more than one set of forms, of which only one is generally found in classic use:—

lavō, lavāre or lavĕre, wash (see § 211. e).

scateō, scatēre or scatĕre, gush forth.

lūdificō, -āre, or lūdificor, -ārī, mock.

fulgō, fulgĕre, or fulgeō, fulgēre, shine.

DEPONENT VERBS

190. Deponent Verbs have the forms of the Passive Voice, with an active or reflexive signification:— PRINCIPAL PARTS First conjugation: mīror, mīrārī, mīrātus, admire. Second conjugation: vereor, verērī, veritus, fear. Third conjugation: sequor, sequī, secūtus, follow. Fourth conjugation: partior, partīrī, partītus, share. CONJUGATION OF THE VERB

INDICATIVE PRES.	mīror	vereor	sequor	partior
	mīrāris (-re)	verēris (-re)	sequeris (-re)	partīris (-re)
	mīrātur	verētur	sequitur	partītur
	mīrāmur	verēmur	sequimur	partīmur
	mīrāminī	verēminī	sequiminī	partīminī
	mīrantur	verentur	sequuntur	partiuntur
IMPF.	mīrābar	verēbar	sequēbar	partiēbar
FUT.	mīrābor	verēbor	sequar	partiar
PERF.	mīrātus sum	veritus sum	secūtus sum	partītus sum
PLUP.	mīrātus eram	veritus eram	secūtus eram	partītus eram
F. P.	mīrātus erō	veritus erō	secūtus erō	partītus erō
		SUBJUNCTIVE
PRES.	mīrer	verear	sequar	partiar
IMPF.	mīrārer	verērer	sequerer	partīrer
PERF.	mīrātus sim	veritus sim	secūtus sim	partītus sim
PLUP.	mīrātus essem	veritus essem	secūtus essem	partītus essem
IMPERATIVE PRES.	mīrāre	verēre	sequere	partīre
FUT.	mīrātor	verētor	sequitor	partītor
INFINITIVE PRES.	mīrārī	verērī	sequī	partīrī
PERF.	mīrātus esse	veritus esse	secūtus esse	partītus esse
FUT.	mīrātūrus esse	veritūrus esse	secūtūrus esse	partītūrus esse
PARTICIPLES PRES.	mīrāns	verēns	sequēns	partiēns
FUT.	mīrātūrus	veritūrus	secūtūrus	partītūrus
PERF.	mīrātus	veritus	secūtus	partītus
GER.	mīrandus	verendus	sequendus	partiendus
GERUND	mīrandī, -ō, etc.	verendī, etc.	sequendī, etc.	partiendī, etc.
SUPINE	mīrātum, -tū	veritum, -tū	secūtum, -tū	partītum, -tū

DEPONENT VERBS
a. Deponents have the participles of both voices:—

sequēns, following.	secūtūrus, about to follow.
secūtus, having followed.	sequendus, to be followed.

b. The perfect participle generally has an active sense, but in verbs otherwise deponent it is often passive: as, mercātus, bought; adeptus, gained (or having gained).
c. The future infinitive is always in the active form: thus, sequor has secūtūrus (-a, -um) esse (not secūtum īrī).
d. The gerundive, being passive in meaning, is found only in transitive verbs, or intransitive verbs used impersonally:—

hōc cōnfitendum est, this must be acknowledged.

moriendum est omnibus, all must die.

e. Most deponents are intransitive or reflexive in meaning, corresponding to what in Greek is called the Middle Voice (§ 156. a. N.).
f. Some deponents are occasionally used in a passive sense: as, crīminor, I accuse, or I am accused.
g. About twenty verbs have an active meaning in both active and passive forms: as, mereō or mereor, I deserve.

191. More than half of all deponents are of the First Conjugation, and all of these are regular. The following deponents are irregular:—

adsentior, -īrī, adsēnsus, assent.	oblīvīscor, -ī, oblītus, forget.
apīscor, (-ip-), -ī, aptus (-eptus), get.	opperior, -īrī, oppertus, await.
dēfetīscor, -ī, -fessus, faint.	ōrdior, -īrī, ōrsus, begin.
expergīscor, -ī, -perrēctus, rouse.	orior, -īrī, ortus (oritūrus), rise (3d
experior, -īrī, expertus, try.	conjugation in most forms).
fateor, -ērī, fassus, confess.	pacīscor, -ī, pactus, bargain.
fruor, -ī, frūctus (fruitus), enjoy.	patior (-petior), -ī, passus (-pessus),
fungor, -ī, fūnctus, fulfil.	suffer.
gradior (-gredior), -ī, gressus, step.	-plector, -ī, -plexus, clasp.
īrāscor, -ī, īrātus, be angry.	proficīscor, -ī, profectus, set out.
lābor, -ī, lāpsus, fall.	queror, -ī, questus, complain.
loquor, -ī, locūtus, speak.	reor, rērī, ratus, think.
mētior, -īrī, mēnsus, measure.	revertor, -ī, reversus, return.
-minīscor, -ī, -mentus, think.	ringor, -ī, rictus, snarl.
morior, -ī, (-īrī), mortuus (moritūrus), die.	sequor, -ī, secūtus, follow.
nancīscor, -ī, nactus (nānctus), find.	tueor, -ērī, tuitus (tūtus), defend.
nāscor, -ī, nātus, be born.	ulcīscor, -ī, ultus, avenge.
nītor, -ī, nīsus (nīxus), strive.	ūtor, -ī, ūsus, use, employ.

NOTE.—The deponent comperior, -īrī, compertus, is rarely found for comperiō, -īre. Revertor, until the time of Augustus, had regularly the active forms in the perfect system, revertī, reverteram, etc.
CONJUGATION OF THE VERB
a. The following deponents have no supine stem:—

dēvertor, -tī, turn aside (to lodge).	medeor, -ērī, heal.
diffiteor, -ērī, deny.	reminīscor, -ī, call to mind.
fatīscor, -ī, gape.	vescor, -ī, feed upon.
līquor, -ī, melt (intrans.).

NOTE.—Deponents are really passive (or middle) verbs whose active voice has disappeared. There is hardly one that does not show signs of having been used in the active at some period of the language.

Semi-Deponents

192. A few verbs having no perfect stem are regular in the present, but appear in the tenses of completed action as deponents. These are called Semi-deponents. They are:—

audeō, audēre, ausus, dare.	gaudeō, gaudēre, gāvīsus, rejoice.
fīdō, fīdĕre, fīsus, trust.	soleō, solēre, solitus, be wont.

a. From audeō there is an old perfect subjunctive ausim. The form sōdēs (for sī audēs), an thou wilt, is frequent in the dramatists and rare elsewhere.
b. The active forms vāpulō, vāpulāre, be flogged, and vēneō, vēnīre, be sold (contracted from vēnum īre, go to sale), have a passive meaning, and are sometimes called neutral passives. To these may be added fierī, to be made (§ 204), and exsulāre, to be banished (live in exile); cf. accēdere, to be added.
NOTE.—The following verbs are sometimes found as semi-deponents: iūrō, iūrāre, iūrātus, swear; nūbō, nūbere, nūpta, marry; placeō, placēre, placitus, please.

THE PERIPHRASTIC CONJUGATIONS

193. A Periphrastic form, as the name indicates, is a ``roundabout way of speaking.'' In the widest sense, all verb-phrases consisting of participles and sum are Periphrastic Forms. The Present Participle is, however, rarely so used, and the Perfect Participle with sum is included in the regular conjugation (amātus sum, eram, etc.). Hence the term Periphrastic Conjugation is usually restricted to verb-phrases consisting of the Future Active Participle or the Gerundive with sum.
NOTE.—The Future Passive Infinitive, as amātum īrī, formed from the infinitive passive of eō, go, used impersonally with the supine in -um, may also be classed as a periphrastic form (§ 203. a).

194. There are two Periphrastic Conjugations, known respectively as the First (or Active) and the Second (or Passive).
a. The First Periphrastic Conjugation combines the Future Active Participle with the forms of sum, and denotes a future or intended action.
b. The Second Periphrastic Conjugation combines the Gerundive with the forms of sum, and denotes obligation, necessity, or propriety.
c. The periphrastic forms are inflected regularly throughout the Indicative and Subjunctive and in the Present and Perfect Infinitive. THE PERIPHRASTIC CONJUGATION

195. The First Periphrastic Conjugation:—

	INDICATIVE
PRESENT	amātūrus sum, I am about to love
IMPERFECT	amātūrus eram, I was about to love
FUTURE	amātūrus erō, I shall be about to love
PERFECT	amātūrus fuī, I have been, was, about to love
PLUPERFECT	amātūrus fueram, I had been about to love
FUTURE PERFECT	amātūrus fuerō, I shall have been about to love
	SUBJUNCTIVE
PRESENT	amātūrus sim
IMPERFECT	amātūrus essem
PERFECT	amātūrus fuerim
PLUPERFECT	amātūrus fuissem
	INFINITIVE
PRESENT	amātūrus esse, to be about to love
PERFECT	amātūrus fuisse, to have been about to love

So in the other conjugations:— Second: monitūrus sum, I am about to advise. Third: tēctūrus sum, I am about to cover. Fourth: audītūrus sum, I am about to hear. Third (in -iō): captūrus sum, I am about to take.

196. The Second Periphrastic Conjugation:—

	INDICATIVE
PRESENT	amandus sum, I am to be, must be, loved
IMPERFECT	amandus eram, I was to be, had to be, loved
FUTURE	amandus erō, I shall have to be loved
PERFECT	amandus fuī, I was to be, had to be, loved
PLUPERFECT	amandus fueram, I had had to be loved
FUTURE PERFECT	amandus fuerō, I shall have had to be loved
	SUBJUNCTIVE
PRESENT	amandus sim
IMPERFECT	amandus essem
PERFECT	amandus fuerim
PLUPERFECT	amandus fuissem
	INFINITIVE
PRESENT	amandus esse, to have to be loved
PERFECT	amandus fuisse, to have had to be loved

CONJUGATION OF THE VERB So in the other conjugations:— Second: monendus sum, I am to be, must be, advised. Third: tegendus sum, I am to be, must be, covered. Fourth: audiendus sum, I am to be, must be, heard. Third (in -iō): capiendus sum, I am to be, must be, taken.

IRREGULAR VERBS

197. Several verbs add some of the personal endings of the present system directly to the root,¹¹⁵ or combine two verbs in their inflection. These are called Irregular Verbs. They are sum, volō, ferō, edō, dō, eō, queō, fiō, and their compounds. Sum has already been inflected in § 170.

198. Sum is compounded without any change of inflection with the prepositions ab, ad, dē, in, inter, ob, prae, prō (earlier form prōd), sub, super.
a. In the compound prōsum (help), prō retains its original d before e: PRINCIPAL PARTS: prōsum, prōdesse, prōfuī, prōfutūrus

	INDICATIVE		SUBJUNCTIVE
	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural
PRESENT	prōsum	prōsumus	prōsim	prōsīmus
	prōdes	prōdestis	prōsīs	prōsītis
	prōdest	prōsunt	prōsit	prōsint
IMPERFECT	prōderam	prōderāmus	prōdessem	prōdessēmus
FUTURE	prōderō	prōderimus	—–	—–
PERFECT	prōfuī	prōfuimus	prōfuerim	prōfuerimus
PLUPERFECT	prōfueram	prōfuerāmus	prōfuissem	prōfuissēmus
FUT. PERF.	prōfuerō	prōfuerimus	—–	—–

	IMPERATIVE
PRESENT	prōdes, prōdeste	FUTURE	prōdestō, prōdestōte

	INFINITIVE
PRESENT	prōdesse	PERFECT	prōfuisse
FUTURE prōfutūrus esse
PARTICIPLE
FUTURE prōfutūrus

IRREGULAR VERBS
b. Sum is also compounded with the adjective potis, or pote, able, making the verb possum (be able, can). Possum is inflected as follows:—¹¹⁶

PRINCIPAL PARTS: possum, posse, potuī¹¹⁷ INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural
PRESENT	possum	possumus	possim	possīmus
	potes	potestis	possīs	possītis
	potest	possunt	possit	possint
IMPERFECT	poteram	poterāmus	possem	possēmus
FUTURE	poterō	poterimus-	—–	—–
PERFECT	potuī	potuimus	potuerim	potuerimus
PLUPERFECT	potueram	potuerāmus	potuissem	potuissēmus
FUT. PERF.	potuerō	potuerimus	—–	—–

		INFINITIVE
	PRES. posse		PERF. potuisse

PARTICIPLE

PRES. potēns (adjective), powerful

199. volō, nōlō, mālō PRINCIPAL PARTS: volō, velle, voluī,—, be willing, will, wish nōlō, nōlle, nōluī,—, be unwilling, will not mālō, mālle, māluī,—, be more willing, prefer
NOTE.—Nōlō and mālō are compounds of volō. Nōlō is for ne-volō, and mālō for mā-volō from mage-volō.

INDICATIVE PRESENT	volō	nōlō	mālō
	vīs¹¹⁸	nōn vīs	māvīs
	vult (volt)	nōn vult	māvult
	volumus	nōlumus	mālumus
	vultis (voltis)	nōn vultis	māvultis
	volunt	nōlunt	mālunt
IMPERFECT	volēbam	nōlēbam	mālēbam
FUTURE	volam, volēs, etc.	nōlam, nōlēs, etc.	mālam, mālēs, etc.
PERFECT	voluī	nōluī	māluī
PLUPERFECT	volueram	nōlueram	mālueram
FUT. PERF.	voluerō	nōluerō	māluerō

CONJUGATION OF THE VERB

SUBJUNCTIVE PRESENT	velim, -īs, -it,	nōlim	mālim
	velīmus, -ītis, -int
IMPERFECT	vellem,¹¹⁹ -ēs, -et,	nōllem	māllem
	vellēmus, -ētis, -ent
PERFECT	voluerim	nōluerim	māluerim
PLUPERFECT	voluissem	nōluissem	māluissem

		IMPERATIVE
PRESENT	—–		nōlī, nōlīte	—–
FUTURE	—–		nōlītō, etc.	—–
		INFINITIVE
PRESENT	velle¹¹⁹		nōlle	mālle
PERFECT	voluisse		nōluisse	māluisse
		PARTICIPLES
PRESENT	volēns, -entis		nōlēns, -entis	—–

NOTE.—The forms sīs for sī vīs, sūltis for sī vultis, and the forms nĕvīs (nĕ-vīs), nĕvolt, māvolō, māvolunt, māvelim, māvellem, etc., occur in early writers.

200. Ferō, bear, carry, endure¹²⁰

PRINCIPAL PARTS: ferō, ferre,¹²¹ tulī, lātum

PRESENT STEM fer-

PERFECT STEM tul-

SUPINE STEM lāt-

	ACTIVE		PASSIVE
		INDICATIVE
PRESENT	ferō	ferimus	feror	ferimur
	fers	fertis	ferris (-re)	feriminī
	fert	ferunt	fertur	feruntur
IMPERFECT	ferēbam		ferēbar
FUTURE	feram		ferar
PERFECT	tulī		lātus sum
PLUPERFECT	tuleram		lātus eram
FUTURE PERFECT	tulerō		lātus erō
IRREGULAR VERBS SUBJUNCTIVE PRESENT	feram		ferar
IMPERFECT	ferrem¹²²		ferrer
PERFECT	tulerim		lātus sim
PLUPERFECT	tulissem		lātus essem

		IMPERATIVE
PRESENT	fer	ferte	ferre	feriminī
FUTURE	fertō	fertōte	fertor
	fertō	feruntō	fertor	feruntor
		INFINITIVE
PRESENT	ferre		ferrī
PERFECT	tulisse		lātus esse
FUTURE	lātūrus esse		lātum īrī
		PARTICIPLES
PRESENT	ferēns, -entis		PERFECT	lātus
FUTURE	lātūrus		GERUNDIVE	ferendus

GERUND	SUPINE
ferendī, -dō, -dum, -dō	lātum, lātū

a. The compounds of ferō, conjugated like the simple verb, are the following:—

ad-	adferō	adferre	attulī	allātum
au-, ab-	auferō	auferre	abstulī	ablātum
con-	cōnferō	cōnferre	contulī	collātum
dis-, dī-	differō	differre	distulī	dīlātum
ex-, ē-	efferō	efferre	extulī	ēlātum
in-	īnferō	īnferre	intulī	illātum
ob-	offerō	offerre	obtulī	oblātum
re-	referō	referre	rettulī	relātum
sub-	sufferō	sufferre	sustulī¹²³	sublātum¹²⁴

NOTE.—In these compounds the phonetic changes in the preposition are especially to be noted. ab- and au- are two distinct prepositions with the same meaning.
CONJUGATION OF THE VERB

201. Edō, edere, ēdī, ēsum, eat, is regular of the third conjugation, but has also an archaic present subjunctive and some alternative forms directly from the root (ED), without the thematic vowel. These are in full-faced type.

ACTIVE INDICATIVE
PRESENT	edō, edis (ēs¹²⁵) edit (ēst)
	edimus, editis (ēstis), edunt
IMPERFECT	edēbam, edēbās, etc.
SUBJUNCTIVE
PRESENT	edam (edim), edās (edīs), edat (edit)
	edāmus (edīmus), edātis (edītis), edant (edint)
IMPERFECT	ederem, ederēs (ēssēs), ederet (ēsset)
	ederēmus (ēssēmus), ederētis (ēssētis), ederent (ēssent)

		IMPERATIVE
	Singular		Plural
PRESENT	ede (ēs)		edite (ēste)
FUTURE	editō (ēstō)		editōte (ēstōte)
	editō (ēstō)		eduntō

INFINITIVE		PARTICIPLES
PRESENT	edere (ēsse)	PRESENT	edēns, -entis
PERFECT	ēdisse	FUTURE	ēsūrus¹²⁶
FUTURE	ēsūrus esse

GERUND

edendī, -dō, -dum, -dō

SUPINE

ēsum, ēsū¹²⁷

a. In the Passive the following irregular forms occur in the third person singular: Present Indicative ēstur, Imperfect Subjunctive ēssētur. IRREGULAR VERBS

202. The irregular verb dō, give, is conjugated as follows:— PRINCIPAL PARTS: dō, d are, dedī, datum PRESENT STEM d a-PERFECT STEM ded-SUPINE STEM dat-

	ACTIVE		PASSIVE
INDICATIVE PRESENT	dō	damus	—	damur
	dās	datis	daris (-re)	daminī
	dat	dant	datur	dantur
IMPERFECT	dabam		dabar
FUTURE	dabō		dabor
PERFECT	dedī		datus sum
PLUPERFECT	dederam		datus eram
FUTURE PERFECT	dederō		datus erō

	SUBJUNCTIVE
PRESENT	dem, dēs, det, etc.	—, dēris (-re), dētur, etc.
IMPERFECT	darem	darer
PERFECT	dederim	datus sim
PLUPERFECT	dedissem	datus essem

			IMPERATIVE
PRESENT	dā	date		dare	daminī
FUTURE	datō	datōte		dator	—
	datō	dantō		dator	dantor

		INFINITIVE
PRESENT	dare		darī
PERFECT	dedisse		datus esse
FUTURE	datūrus esse		datum īrī

		PARTICIPLES
PRESENT	dāns, dantis		PERFECT	datus
FUTURE	datūrus		GERUNDIVE	dandus

GERUND

dandī, -dō, -dum, -dō

SUPINE

datum, datū

For compounds of dō, see § 209. a. N.

CONJUGATION OF THE VERB

203. Eō, go.¹²⁸ PRINCIPAL PARTS: eō, īre, iī (īvī), itum

	INDICATIVE	SUBJUNCTIVE
PRESENT	eō, īs, it	eam, eās, eat
	īmus, ītis, eunt	eāmus, eātis, eant
IMPERFECT	ībam, ībās, ībat	īrem, īrēs, īret
	ībāmus, ībātis, ībant	īrēmus, īrētis, īrent
FUTURE	ībō, ībis, ībit
	ībimus, ībitis, ībunt
PERFECT	iī (īvī)	ierim (īverim)
PLUPERFECT	ieram (īveram)	īssem (īvissem)
FUTURE PERFECT	ierō (īverō)

	IMPERATIVE
PRESENT	ī	FUTURE ītō, ītōte
	īte	ītō, euntō

	INFINITIVE
PRESENT īre	PERFECT īsse (īvisse)	FUTURE itūrus esse

	PARTICIPLES
PRESENT iēns, gen. euntis	FUTURE itūrus	GERUNDIVE eundum

GERUND eundī, -dō, -dum, -dō

SUPINE itum, itū

a. The compounds adeō, approach, ineō, enter, and some others, are transitive. They are inflected as follows in the passive:—

	INDICATIVE	SUBJUNCTIVE
PRES. adeor	IMPF. adībar	PRES. adear
adīris	FUT. adībor	IMPF. adīrer
adītur	PERF. aditus sum	PERF. aditus sim
adīmur	PLUP. aditus eram	PLUP. aditus essem
adīminī	F. P. aditus erō
adeuntur
INFIN. adīrī	aditus esse	PART. aditus adeundus

Thus inflected, the forms of eō are used impersonally in the third person singular of the passive: as, itum est (§ 208. d). The infinitive īrī is used with the supine in -um to make the future infinitive passive (§ 193. N.). The verb vēneō, be sold (i.e. vēnum eō, go to sale), has also several forms in the passive.
b. In the perfect system of eō the forms with v are very rare in the simple verb and unusual in the compounds.
c. ii before s is regularly contracted to ī: as, īsse. IRREGULAR VERBS
d. The compound ambiō is inflected regularly like a verb of the fourth conjugation. But it has also ambībat in the imperfect indicative.
e. Prō with eō retains its original d: as, prōdeō, prōdīs, prōdit.

204. Faciō, facere, fēcī, factum, make, is regular. But it has imperative fac in the active, and, besides the regular forms, the future perfect faxō, perfect subjunctive faxim. The passive of faciō is—

fiō, fi erī, factus sum, be made or become.

The present system of fiō is regular of the fourth conjugation, but the subjunctive imperfect is fierem, and the infinitive fierī.
NOTE.—The forms in brackets are not used in good prose.

	INDICATIVE	SUBJUNCTIVE
PRESENT	fīō, fīs, fit	fīam, fīās, fīat
	[fīmus], [fītis], fīunt	fīāmus, fīātis, fīant
IMPERFECT	fīēbam, fīēbās, etc.	fierem, fierēs, etc.
FUTURE	fīam, fīēs, etc.
PERFECT	factus sum	factus sim
PLUPERFECT	factus eram	factus essem
FUTURE PERFECT	factus erō
	IMPERATIVE
	[fī, fīte, fītō, —]¹²⁹
	INFINITIVE
PRESENT fierī	PERFECT factus esse	FUTURE factum īrī

	PARTICIPLES
PERFECT	factus	GERUNDIVE	faciendus

a. Most compounds of faciō with prepositions weaken ă to ĭ in the present stem and to ĕ in the supine stem, and are inflected regularly like verbs in -iō:—

cōnficiō, cōnfic ere, cōnfēcī, cōnfectum, finish.

cōnficior, cōnficī, cōnfectus.

b. Other compounds retain a, and have -fiō in the passive: as, benefaciō, -facere, -fēcī, -factum; passive benefiō, -fierī, -factus, benefit. These retain the accent of the simple verb: as, bene-f a cis (§ 12. a, Exc.).
c. A few isolated forms of fīo occur in other compounds:—

cōnfit, it happens, cōnfīunt; cōnfīat; cōnfieret, cōnfierent; cōnfierī.

dēfit, it lacks, dēfīunt; dēfīet; dēfīat; dēfierī.

effierī, to be effected.

īnfīō, begin (to speak), īnfit.

interfīat, let him perish; interfīerī, to perish.

superfit, it remains over; superfiat, superfierī.

CONJUGATION OF THE VERB

DEFECTIVE VERBS

205. Some verbs have lost the Present System, and use only tenses of the Perfect, in which they are inflected regularly. These are — coepī,¹³⁰ I began ōdī,¹³¹ I hate meminī,¹³² I remember

	INDICATIVE
PERFECT	coepī	ōdī	meminī
PLUPERFECT	coeperam	ōderam	memineram
FUTURE PERFECT	coeperō	ōderō	meminerō
	SUBJUNCTIVE
PERFECT	coeperim	ōderim	meminerim
PLUPERFECT	coepissem	ōdissem	meminissem
	IMPERATIVE
			mementō
			mementōte
	INFINITIVE
PERFECT	coepisse	ōdisse	meminisse
FUTURE	coeptūrus esse	ōsūrus esse
	PARTICIPLES
PERFECT	coeptus, begun	ōsus, hating or hated
FUTURE	coeptūrus	ōsūrus, likely to hate

a. The passive of coepī is often used with the passive infinitive: as, coeptus sum vocārī, I began to be called, but coepī vocāre, I began to call. For the present system incipiō is used.
NOTE.—Early and rare forms are coepiō, coepiam, coeperet, coepere.

b. The Perfect, Pluperfect, and Future Perfect of ōdī and meminī have the meanings of a Present, Imperfect, and Future respectively:—

ōdī, I hate; ōderam, I hated (was hating); ōderō, I shall hate.

NOTE 1.—A present participle meminēns is early and late.

NOTE 2.—Nōvī and cōnsuēvī (usually referred to nōscō and cōnsuēscō) are often used in the sense of I know (have learned) and I am accustomed (have become accustomed) as preteritive verbs. Many other verbs are occasionally used in the same way (see 476. N.).
DEFECTIVE VERBS

206. Many verbs are found only in the Present System. Such are maereō, -ēre, be sorrowful (cf. maestus, sad); feriō, -īre, strike. In many the simple verb is incomplete, but the missing parts occur in its compounds: as, vādō, vādere, in-vāsī, in-vāsum. Some verbs occur very commonly, but only in a few forms:—
a. Âiō, I say:—

INDIC.	PRES.	âiō, ais,¹³³ ait; —,—, âiunt
	IMPF.	âiēbam,¹³⁴ âiēbās, etc.
SUBJV.	PRES.	—, âiās, âiat; —,—, âiant
IMPER.	aī (rare)
PART.	âiēns

The vowels a and i are pronounced separately (a-is, a-it) except sometimes in old or colloquial Latin. Before a vowel, one i stands for two (see § 6. c):— thus âiō was pronounced ai-yō and was sometimes written aiiō.
b. Inquam, I say, except in poetry, is used only in direct quotations (cf. the English quoth).

INDIC.	PRES.	inquam, inquis, inquit; inquimus, inquitis (late), inquiunt
	IMPF.	—,—, inquiēbat; —,—,—
	FUT.	—, inquiēs, inquiet; —,—,—
	PERF.	inquiī, inquīstī,—; —,—,—
IMPER.	PRES.	inque
	FUT.	inquitō

The only common forms are inquam, inquis, inquit, inquiunt, and the future inquiēs, inquiet.
c. The deponent fārī, to speak, has the following forms:—

INDIC.	PRES.	—,—, fātur; —,—, fantur
	FUT.	fābor,—, fābitur; —,—,—
	PERF.	—,—, fātus est; —,—, fātī sunt
	PLUP.	fātus eram,—, fātus erat; —,—,—
IMPER.	PRES.	fāre
INFIN.	PRES.	fārī
PART.	PRES.	fāns, fantis, etc. (in singular)
	PERF.	fātus (having spoken)
	GER.	fandus (to be spoken of)

GERUND, gen.

fandī, abl. fandō

SUPINE

fātū

Several forms compounded with the prepositions ex, prae, prō, inter, occur: as, praefātur, praefāmur, affārī, prōfātus, interfātur, etc. The compound īnfāns is regularly used as a noun (child). Īnfandus, nefandus, are used as adjectives, unspeakable, abominable. CONJUGATION OF THE VERB
d. Queō, I can, nequeō, I cannot, are conjugated like eō. They are rarely used except in the present. Queō is regularly accompanied by a negative. The forms given below occur, those in full-faced type in classic prose. The Imperative, Gerund, and Supine are wanting.

INDICATIVE	SUBJUNCTIVE	INDICATIVE	SUBJUNCTIVE
PRESENT		PRESENT
queō	queam	nequeō (nōn queō)	nequeam
quīs	queās	nequīs	nequeās
quit	queat	nequit	nequeat
quīmus	queāmus	nequīmus	nequeāmus
quītis	—	nequītis	—
queunt	queant	nequeunt	nequeant
IMPERFECT		IMPERFECT
quībam	—	—	nequīrem
quībat	quīret	nequībat	nequīret
—	quīrent	nequībant	nequīrent
FUTURE		FUTURE
quībō		nequībit
quībunt		nequībunt
PERFECT		PERFECT
quīvī	—	nequīvī	nequīverim
—	—	nequīstī	—
quīvit	quīverit (-ierit)	nequīvit (nequiit)	nequīverit
quīvērunt (-ēre)	quierint	nequīvērunt (-quiēre)	nequīverint
PLUPERFECT		PLUPERFECT
—	—	nequīverat (-ierat)	nequīvisset (-quīsset)
—	quīvissent	nequīverant (-ierant)	nequīssent
INFINITIVE
quīre	quīsse	nequīre	nequīvisse (-quīsse)
PARTICIPLES
quiēns		nequiēns, nequeuntēs

NOTE.—A few passive forms are used with passive infinitives: as, quītur, queuntur, quitus sum, queātur, queantur, nequītur, nequitum; but none of these occurs in classic prose.
IMPERSONAL VERBS
e. Quaesō, I ask, beg (original form of quaerō), has —

INDIC.

PRES.

quaesō, quaesŭmus

NOTE.—Other forms of quaesō are found occasionally in early Latin. For the perfect system (quaesīvī, etc.), see quaerō (§ 211. d).

f. Ovāre, to triumph, has the following:—

INDIC.	PRES.	ovās, ovat
SUBJV.	PRES.	ovet
	IMPF.	ovāret
PART.		ovāns, ovātūrus, ovātus
GER.		ovandī

g. A few verbs are found chiefly in the Imperative:—

PRES. singular salvē, plural salvēte, FUT. salvētō, hail! (from salvus, safe and sound). An infinitive salvēre and the indicative forms salveō, salvētis, salvēbis, are rare.

PRES. singular avē (or havē), plural avēte, FUT. avētō, hail or farewell. An infinitive avēre also occurs.

PRES. singular c edo, plural c edite (cette), give, tell.

PRES. singular apage, begone (properly a Greek word).

IMPERSONAL VERBS

207. Many verbs, from their meaning, appear only in the third person singular, the infinitive, and the gerund. These are called Impersonal Verbs, as having no personal subject.¹³⁵ The passive of many intransitive verbs is used in the same way.

CONJ. I	II	III	IV	PASS. CONJ. I
it is plain	it is allowed	it chances	it results	it is fought
cōnstat	licet	accidit	ēvenit	pūgnātur
cōnstābat	licēbat	accidēbat	ēveniēbat	pūgnābātur
cōnstābit	licēbit	accidet	ēveniet	pūgnābitur
cōnstitit	licuit, -itum est	accidit	ēvēnit	pūgnātum est
cōnstiterat	licuerat	acciderat	ēvēnerat	pūgnātum erat
cōnstiterit	licuerit	acciderit	ēvēnerit	pūgnātum erit
cōnstet	liceat	accidat	ēveniat	pūgnētur
cōnstāret	licēret	accideret	ēvenīret	pūgnārētur
cōnstiterit	licuerit	acciderit	ēvēnerit	pūgnātum sit
cōnstitisset	licuisset	accidisset	ēvēnisset	pūgnātum esset
cōnstāre	licēre	accid ere	ēvenīre	pūgnārī
cōnstitisse	licuisse	accidisse	ēvēnisse	pūgnātum esse
-stātūrum esse	-itūrum esse	—	-tūrum esse	pūgnātum īrī

CONJUGATION OF THE VERB

208. Impersonal Verbs may be classified as follows:—
a. Verbs expressing the operations of nature and the time of day:—

vesperāscit (inceptive, § 263. 1), it grows late.	ningit, it snows.
lūcīscit hōc, it is getting light.	fulgurat, it lightens.
grandinat, it hails.	tonat, it thunders.
pluit, it rains.	rōrat, the dew falls

NOTE.—In these no subject is distinctly thought of. Sometimes, however, the verb is used personally with the name of a divinity as the subject: as, Iuppiter tonat, Jupiter thunders. In poetry other subjects are occasionally used: as, fundae saxa pluunt, the slings rain stones.

b. Verbs of feeling, where the person who is the proper subject becomes the object, as being himself affected by the feeling expressed in the verb (§ 354. b):—

miseret, it grieves.	paenitet (poenitet), it repents.
piget, it disgusts.	pudet, it shames.
taedet, it wearies.
miseret mē, I pity (it distresses me);	pudet mē, I am ashamed.

NOTE.—Such verbs often have also a passive form: as, misereor, I pity (am moved to pity); and occasionally other parts: as, paenitūrus (as from †paeniō), paenitendus, pudendus, pertaesum est, pigitum est.

c. Verbs which have a phrase or clause as their subject (cf. §§ 454, 569. 2):—

accidit, contingit, ēvenit, obtingit, obvenit, fit, it happens.
libet, it pleases.	dēlectat, iuvat, it delights.
licet, it is permitted.	oportet, it is fitting, ought.
certum est, it is resolved.	necesse est, it is needful.
cōnstat, it is clear.	praestat, it is better.
placet, it seems good (pleases).	interest, rēfert, it concerns.
vidētur, it seems, seems good.	vacat, there is leisure.
decet, it is becoming.	restat, superest, it remains.

NOTE.—Many of these verbs may be used personally; as, vacō, I have leisure. Libet and licet have also the passive forms libitum (licitum) est etc. The participles libēns and licēns are used as adjectives.

d. The passive of intransitive verbs is very often used impersonally (see synopsis in § 207):—

ventum est, they came (there was coming).

pūgnātur, there is fighting (it is fought).

ītur, some one goes (it is gone).

parcitur mihi, I am spared (it is spared to me, see § 372).

NOTE.—The impersonal use of the passive proceeds from its original reflexive (or middle) meaning, the action being regarded as accomplishing itself (compare the French cela se fait).
CLASSIFIED LISTS OF VERBS

CLASSIFIED LISTS OF VERBS

First Conjugation

209. There are about 360 simple verbs of the First Conjugation, most of them formed directly on a noun- or adjective-stem:

armō, arm (arma, arms); caecō, to blind (caecus, blind); exsulō, be an exile (exsul, an exile) (§ 259).

Their conjugation is usually regular, like amō; though of many only a few forms are found in use.
a. The following verbs form their Perfect and Supine stems irregularly. Those marked * have also regular forms.

crepō, crepuī (-crepāvī), -crepit-, resound.	*plicō, -plicuī, -plicit-, fold*.
*cubō, cubuī, -cubit-*, lie down*.	*pōtō, pōtāvī, pōt-*, drink*.
dō, d are, dedī, d at-, give (DA).	secō, secuī, sect-, cut.
domō, domuī, domit-, subdue.	sonō, sonuī, sonit-,¹³⁶ sound.
*fricō, fricuī, frict-*, rub*.	stō, stetī, -stat- (-stit-), stand.
iuvō (ad-iuvō), iūvī, iūt-,¹³⁷ help.	*tonō, tonuī, -tonit-*, thunder*.
micō, micuī,—, glitter.	vetō, vetuī, vetit-, forbid.
*necō, necuī, necāt- (-nect-)*, kill*.¹³⁸

NOTE.—Compounds of these verbs have the following forms:—

crepō: con-crepuī, dis-crepuī or -crepāvī; in-crepuī or -crepāvī.

dō: circum-, inter-, pessum-, satis-, super-, v=enum-d=o, -ded=i, -dat-, of the first conjugation. Other compounds belong to the root DHA, put, and are of the third conjugation: as, cond=o, cond ere, condid=i, conditum.

micō: d=i-mic=av=i, -mic=at-; =e-micu=i, -mic=at-.

plico: re-, sub- (sup-), multi-plic=o, -plicāvī, -plicāt-; ex-plicō (unfold), -uī, -it-; (explain), -āvī, -āt-; im-plicō, -āvī (-uī), -ātum (-itum)

stō: cōn-stō, -stitī, (-stātūrus); ad-, re-stō, -stitī,—; ante- (anti-), inter-, super- stō, -stetī,—; circum-stō, -stetī (-stitī),—; prae-stō, -stitī, -stit- (-stāt-); dī-stō, ex-stō, no perfect or supine (future participle ex-st=at=urus).

Second Conjugation

210. There are nearly 120 simple verbs of the Second Conjugation, most of them denominative verbs of condition, having a corresponding noun and adjective from the same root, and an inceptive in -scō (§ 263. 1):—

caleō, be warm; calor, warmth; calidus, warm; calēscō, grow warm.

timeō, fear; timor, fear; timidus, timid; per-timēsco, to take fright.

CONJUGATION OF THE VERB
a. Most verbs of the second conjugation are inflected like moneō, but many lack the supine (as, arceō, ward off; careō, lack; egeō, need; timeō, fear), and a number have neither perfect nor supine (as, maereō, be sad).
b. The following keep ē in all the systems:—

dēleō, destroy	dēlēre	dēlēvī	dēlētum
fleō, weep	flēre	flēvī	flētum
neō, sew	nēre	nēvī	[nētum]
vieō, plait	viēre	[viēvī]	viētum
com-pleō, fill up¹³⁹	-plēre	-plēvī	-plētum

c. The following show special irregularities:—

algeō, alsī, be cold.	mulceō, mulsī, muls-, soothe.
ārdeō, ārsī, ārsūrus, burn.	mulgeō, mulsī, muls-, milk.
audeō, ausus sum, dare.	(cō) nīveō, -nīvī (-nīxī),—, wink.
augeō, auxī, auct-, increase.	(ab)oleō, -olēvī, -olit-, destroy.
caveō, cāvī, caut-, care.	pendeō, pependī, -pēns-, hang.
cēnseō, cēnsuī, cēns-, value.	prandeō, prandī, prāns-, dine.
cieō, cīvī, cit-, excite.	rīdeō, r=is=i, -rīs-, laugh.
doceō, docuī, doct-, teach.	sedeō, s=ed=i, sess-, sit.
faveō, fāvī, faut-, favor.	soleō, solitus sum, be wont.
ferveō, fervī (ferbuī),—, glow.	sorbe=o, sorbu=i (sorpsī),—, suck.
foveō, fōvī, fōt-, cherish.	spondeō, spopondī, spōns-, pledge.
fulgeō, fulsī,—, shine.	strīdeō, strīdī,—, whiz.
gaudeō, gāvīsus sum, rejoice.	suādeō, suāsī, suās-, urge.
haereō, haesī, haes-, cling.	teneō, (-tineō), tenuī, -tent-, hold.
indulgeō, indulsī, indult-, indulge.	terge=o, tersī, ters-, wipe.
iubeō, iussī, iuss-, order.	tondeō, -totondī (-tondī), tōns-, shear.
liqueō, licuī (līquī),—, melt.	torque=o, torsī, tort-, twist.
lūceō, lūxī,—, shine.	torreō, torruī, tort-, roast.
lūgeō, lūxī,—, mourn.	turgeō, tursī,—, swell.
maneō, mānsī, māns-, wait.	urgeō, ursī,—, urge.
misceō, -cuī, mixt- (mist-), mix.	vide=o, vīdī, vīs-, see.
mordeō, momordī, more-, bite.	vove=o, vōvī, vōt-, vow.
moveō, mōvī, mōt-, move.

Third Conjugation

211. The following lists include most simple verbs of the Third Conjugation, classed according to the formation of the Perfect Stem:—
a. Forming the perfect stem in s (x) (§ 177. b and note):—

angō, ānxī,—, choke.	claudō, clausī, claus-, shut.
carpō, carpsī, carpt-, pluck.	cōmō, cōmpsī, cōmpt-, comb, deck.
cēdō, cessī, cess-, yield.	lrm coqu=o, coxī, coct-, cook.
cingō, cīnxī, cīnct-, bind.	-cutiō, -cussī, -cuss-, shake.
CLASSIFIED LISTS OF VERBS dēmō, dēmpsī, dēmpt-, take away.	quatiō, (-cussī), quass-, shake.
dīcō, dīxī, dict-, say.	rādō, rāsī, rās-, scrape.
dīvidō, dīvīsī, dīvīs-, divide.	regō, rēxī, rēct-, rule.
dūcō, dūxī, duct-, guide.	rēpō, rēpsī,—, creep.
ēmungō, -mūnxī, -mūnct-, clean out.	rōdō, rōsī, rōs-, gnaw.
fīgō, fīxī, fīx-, fix.	scalpō, scalpsī, scalpt-, scrape.
fingō [FIG], fīnxī, fict-, fashion.	scrībō, scrīpsī, scrīpt-, write.
flectō, flexī, flex-, bend.	sculpō, sculpsī, sculpt-, carve.
-flīgō, -flīxī, -flīct-, —, smite.	serpō, serpsī, —, crawl.
fluō, flūxī, flux-, flow.	spargō, sparsī, spars-, scatter.
frendō,—, frēs- (fress-), gnash.	-spiciō, -spexī, -spect-, view.
frīgō, frīxī, frīct-, fry.	-stinguō, -stīnxī, -stīnct-, quench.
gerō, gessī, gest-, carry.	stringō, strīnxī, strict-, bind.
iungō, iūnxī, iūnct-, join.	struō, strūxī, strūct-, build.
laedō, laesī, laes-, hurt.	sūgō, sūxī, sūct-, suck.
-liciō, -lexī, -lect-, entice (ēlicuī, -licit-).	sūmō, sūmpsī, sūmpt-, take.
lūdo, lūsī, lūs-, play.	surgō, surrēxī, surrēct-, rise.
mergō, mersī, mers-, plunge.	tegō, tēxī, tēct-, shelter.
mittō, mīsī, miss-, send.	temnō, -tempsī, -tempt-, despise.
nectō [NEC], nexī (nexuī), nex-, weave.	tergō, tersī, ters-, wipe.
nūbō, nūpsi, nūpt-, marry.	tingō, tīnxī, tīnct-, stain.
pectō, pexī, pex-, comb.	trahō, trāxī, trāct-, drag.
pergō, perrēxī, perrēct-, go on.	trūdō, trūsī, trūs-, thrust.
pingō, [PIG], pīnxī, pict-, paint.	unguō, (ungō), ūnxī, ūnct-, anoint.
plangō [PLAG], plānxī, plānct-, beat.	ūrō, ussī, ust-, burn.
plaudō, plausī, plaus-, applaud.	vādō, -vāsī, -vās-, go.
plectō, plexī, plex-, braid.	vehō, vēxī, vect-, draw.
premō, pressī, press-, press.	vīvō, vīxī, vīct-, live.
prōmō, -mpsī, -mpt-, bring out.

b. Reduplicated in the perfect (§ 177. c):—

cadō, cec idī, cās-, fall.	pariō, peperī, part- (paritūrus), bring
caedō, cecīdī, caes-, cut.	forth.
canō, cecinī,—, sing.	pellō, pepulī, puls-, drive.
currō, cucurrī, curs-, run.	pendō, pependī, pēns-, weigh.
discō [DIC], didicī,—, learn.	poscō, poposcī,—, demand.
-dō [DHA], -didī, -dit- (as in ab-dō, etc.,	pungō [PUG], pupugī (-pūnxī), pūnct-,
with crēdō, vēndō), put.	prick.
fallō, fefellī, fals-, deceive.	sistō [STA], stitī, stat-, stop.
pangō [PAG], pepigī (-pēgī), pāct-, fasten,	tangō [TAG], tetigī, tāct-, touch.
fix, bargain.	tendō [TEN], tetendī (-tendī), tent-, stretch.
parcō, pepercī (parsī), (parsūrus), spare.	tundō [TUD], tutudī, tūns- (-tūs-), beat.

c. Adding u (v) to the verb-root (§ 177. a):—

alō, aluī, alt- (alit-), nourish.	compēscō, compēscuī,—, restrain.
cernō, crēvī, -crēt-, decree.	cōnsulō, -luī, cōnsult-, consult.
colō, colu=i, cult-, dwell, till.	crēscō, crēvī, crēt-, increase.

CONJUGATION OF THE VERB

-cumbō [CUB], -cubuī, -cubit-, lie down.	rapiō, rapuī, rapt-, seize.
depsō, depsuī, depst-, knead.	scīscō, scīvī, scīt-, decree.
fremō, fremuī,—, roar.	serō, sēvī, sat-, sow.
gemō, gemuī,—, groan.	serō, seruī, sert-, entwine.
gignō, [GEN], genuī, genit-, beget.	sinō, sīvī, sit-, permit.
metō, messuī, -mess-, reap.	spernō, sprēvī, sprēt-, scorn.
molō, moluī, molit-, grind.	stern=o, strāvī, strāt-, strew.
occulō, occuluī, occult-, hide.	stert=o, -stertu=i,—, snore.
(ad) olēscō, -ēvī, -ult-, grow up.	strepō, strepuī,—, sound.
pāscō, pāvī, pāst-, feed.	suēscō, suēvī, suēt-, be wont.
percellō, -culī, -culs-, upset.	texō, texuī, text-, weave.
pōnō [POS], posuī, posit-, put.	tremō, tremuī,—, tremble.
quiēscō, quiēvī, quiēt-, rest.	vomō, vomuī,—, vomit.

d. Adding iv to the verb-root (§ 177. f):—

arcessō,¹⁴⁰ -īvī, arcessīt-, summon.	petō, petīvī, petīt-, seek.
capessō, capessīvī,—, undertake.	quaerō, quaesīvī, quaesīt-, seek.
cupiō, cupīvī, cupīt-, desire.	rudō, rudīvī,—, bray.
incessō, incessīvī,—, attack.	sapiō, sapīvī,—, be wise.
lacessō, lacessīvī, lacessīt-, provoke.	terō, trīvī, trīt-, rub.

e. Lengthening the vowel of the root (cf. § 177. d):—

agō, ēgī, āct-, drive.	lavō, lāvī, lōt- (laut-), wash (also regular
capiō, cēpī, capt-, take.	of first conjugation).
edō, ēdī, ēsum, eat (see § 201).	legō,¹⁴¹ lēgī, lēct-, gather.
emō, ēmī, ēmpt-, buy.	linō [LI], lēvī, (līvī), lit-, smear.
faciō, fēcī, fact-, make (see § 204).	linquō [LIC], -līquī, -lict-, leave.
fodiō, fōdī, foss-, dig.	nōscō [GNO], nōvī, nōt- (cō-gnit-, ā-gnit-,
frangō [FRAG], frēgī, frāct-, break.	ad-gnit-), know.
fugiō, fūgī, (fugitūrus), flee.	rumpō [RUP], rūpī, rupt-, burst.
fundō [FUD], fūdī, fūs-, pour.	scabō, scābī,—, scratch.
iaciō, iēcī, iact-, throw (-iciō, -iect-).	vincō [VIC], vīcī, vict-, conquer.

f. Retaining the present stem or verb-root (cf. § 177. e):—

acuō, -uī, -ūt-, sharpen.	imbuō, -uī, -ūt-, give a taste of.
arguō, -uī, -ūt-, accuse.	luō, luī, -lūt-, wash.
bibō, bibī, (pōtus), drink.	mandō, mandī, māns-, chew.
-cendō, -cendī, -cēns-, kindle.	metuō, -uī, -ūt-, fear.
(con) gruō, -uī,—, agree.	minuō, -uī, -ūt-, lessen.
cūdō, -cūdī, -cūs-, forge.	-nuō, -nuī,—, nod.
facessō, -iī (facessī), facessīt-, execute.	pandō, pandī, pāns- (pass-), open.
-fendō, -fendī, -fēns-, ward off.	pīnsō, -sī, pīns- (pīnst-, pīst-), bruise.
findō, [FID], fidī,¹⁴² fiss-, split.	prehendō, -hendī, -hēns-, seize.
īcō, īcī, ict-, hit.	ruō, ruī, rut- (ruitūrus), fall.
FOURTH CONJUGATION scandō, -scendī, -scēnsus, climb.	suō, suī, sūt-, sew.
scindō [SCID], scidī,¹⁴³ sciss-, tear.	(ex)uō, -uī, -ūt-, put off.
sīdō, sīdī (-sēdī), -sess-, settle.	tribuō, -uī, -ūt-, assign.
solvō, solvī, solūt-, loose, pay.	vellō, vellī, (-vulsī), vuls-, pluck.
spuō, -uī,—, spit.	verrō, -verrī, vers-, sweep.
statuō, -uī, -ūt-, establish.	vertō, vertī, vers-, turn.
sternuo, -uī,—, sneeze.	vīsō [VID], vīsī, vīs-, visit.
strīdō, strīdī,—, whiz.	volvō, volvī, volūt-, turn.

NOTE.—Several have no perfect or supine: as, claudō, limp; fatīscō, gape; hīscō, yawn; tollō (sustulī, sublātum, supplied from sufferō), raise; vergō, incline.

Fourth Conjugation

212. There are — besides a few deponents and some regular derivatives in - uriō, as, ēsuriō, be hungry (cf. § 263. 4) — about 60 verbs of this conjugation, a large proportion of them being descriptive verbs: like —

crōciō, croak; mūgiō, bellow; tinniō, tinkle.

a. Most verbs of the Fourth Conjugation are conjugated regularly, like audiō, though a number lack the supine.
b. The following verbs show special peculiarities:—

amiciō, amixī (-cuī), amict-, clothe.	saepiō, saepsī, saept-, hedge in.
aperiō, aperuī, apert-, open.	saliō (-siliō), saluī (saliī), [salt- (-sult-)],
comperiō, -perī, compert-, find.	leap.
farciō, farsī, fartum, stuff.	sanciō [SAC], sānxī, sānct-, sanction.
feriō,—,—, strike.	sarciō, sarsī, sart-, patch.
fulciō, fulsī, fult-, prop.	sentiō, sēnsī, sēns-, feel.
hauriō, hausī, haust- (hausūrus), drain.	sepeliō, sepelīvī, sepult-, bury.
operiō, operuī, opert-, cover.	veniō, vēnī, vent-, come.
reperiō, repperī, repert-, find.	vinciō, vīnxī, vīnct-, bind.

For Index of Verbs, see pp. 436 ff. PARTICLES

PARTICLES

213. Adverbs, Prepositions, Conjunctions, and Interjections are called Particles. In their origin Adverbs, Prepositions, and Conjunctions are either (1) case-forms, actual or extinct, or (2) compounds and phrases.

Particles cannot always be distinctly classified, for many adverbs are used also as prepositions and many as conjunctions (§ § 219 and 222).

ADVERBS

DERIVATION OF ADVERBS

214. Adverbs are regularly formed from Adjectives as follows:
a. From adjectives of the first and second declensions by changing the characteristic vowel of the stem to -ē: as, cārē, dearly, from cārus, dear (stem cāro-); amīcē, like a friend, from amīcus, friendly (stem amīco-).
NOTE.—The ending -ē is a relic of an old ablative in -ēd (cf. § 43. N.^1).

b. From adjectives of the third declension by adding -ter to the stem. Stems in nt- (nom. -ns) lose the t-. All others are treated as i-stems:—

fortiter, bravely, from fortis (stem forti-), brave.

ācriter, eagerly, from ācer (stem ācri-), eager.

vigilanter, watchfully, from vigilāns (stem vigilant-).

prūdenter, prudently, from prūdēns (stem prūdent-).

aliter, otherwise, from alius (old stem ali-).

NOTE.—This suffix is perhaps the same as -ter in the Greek -τερος and in uter, alter. If so, these adverbs are in origin either neuter accusatives (cf. d) or masculine nominatives.

c. Some adjectives of the first and second declensions have adverbs of both forms (-ē and -ter). Thus dūrus, hard, has both dūrē and dūriter; miser, wretched, has both miserē and miseriter.
d. The neuter accusative of adjectives and pronouns is often used as an adverb: as, multum, much; facil e, easily; quid, why. This is the origin of the ending -ius in the comparative degree of adverbs (§ 218): as, ācrius, more keenly (positive ācriter); facilius, more easily (positive facil e).
NOTE.—These adverbs are strictly cognate accusatives (§ 390).

e. The ablative singular neuter or (less commonly) feminine of adjectives, pronouns, and nouns may be used adverbially: as, falsō, falsely; cit o, DERIVATION OF ADVERBS quickly (with shortened o); rēctā (viā), straight (straightway); crēbrō, frequently; volgō, commonly; fort e, by chance; spont e, of one's own accord.
NOTE.—Some adverbs are derived from adjectives not in use: as, abundē, plentifully (as if from †abundus; cf. abundō, abound); saep e, often (as if from †saepis, dense, close-packed; cf. saepēs, hedge, and saepiō, hedge in).

215. Further examples of Adverbs and other Particles which are in origin case-forms of nouns or pronouns are given below. In some the case is not obvious, and in some it is doubtful. 1. Neuter Accusative forms: nōn (for nē-oinom, later ūnum), not; iterum (comparative of i-, stem of is), a second time; dēmum (superlative of dē, down), at last. 2. Feminine Accusatives: partim, partly. So statim, on the spot; saltim, at least (generally saltem), from lost nouns in -tis (genitive -tis). Thus -tim became a regular adverbial termination; and by means of it adverbs were made from many noun- and verb-stems immediately, without the intervention of any form which could have an accusative in -tim: as, sēparātim, separately, from sēparātus, separate. Some adverbs that appear to be feminine accusative are possibly instrumental: as, palam, openly; perperam, wrongly; tam, so; quam, as. 3. Plural Accusatives: as, aliās, elsewhere; forās, out of doors (as end of motion). So perhaps quia, because. 4. Ablative or Instrumental forms: quā, where; intrā, within; extrā, outside; quī, how; aliquī, somehow; forīs, out of doors; quō, whither; adeō, to that degree; ultrō, beyond; citrō, this side (as end of motion); retrō, back; illōc (for †illō-ce), weakened to illūc, thither. Those in -trō are from comparative stems (cf. ūls, cis, re-). 5. Locative forms: ibi, there; ubi, where; illī, illī-c, there; peregrī (peregrē), abroad; hīc (for †hī-ce), here. Also the compounds hodiē (probably for †hōdiē), to-day; perendiē, day after to-morrow. 6. Of uncertain formation: (1) those in -tus (usually preceded by i), with an ablative meaning: as, funditus, from the bottom, utterly; dīvīnitus, from above, providentially; intus, within; penitus, within; (2) those in -dem, -dam, -dō: as, quidem, indeed; quondam, once; quandō (cf. dōnec), when; (3) dum (probably accusative of time), while; iam, now.

216. A phrase or short sentence has sometimes grown together into an adverb (cf. notwithstanding, nevertheless, besides):—

postmodo, presently (a short time after).

dēnuō (for dē novō), anew.

vidēlicet (for vidē licet), to wit (see, you may).

nihilōminus, nevertheless (by nothing the less).

NOTE.—Other examples are:— anteā, old antideā, before (ante eā, probably ablative or instrumental); īlicō (in locō), on the spot, immediately; prōrsus, absolutely (prōvorsus, straight ahead); rūrsus (re-vorsus), again; quotannīs, yearly (quot annīs, as many years as there are); quam-ob-rem, wherefore; cōminus, hand to hand (con manus); ēminus, at long range (ex manus); nīmīrum, without doubt (nī mīrum); ob-viam (as in īre obviam, to go to meet); prīdem (cf. prae and -dem in i-dem), for some time; forsan (fors an), perhaps (it's a chance whether); forsitan (fors sit an), perhaps (it would be a chance whether); scīlicet (†scī, licet), that is to say (know, you may; cf. ī-licet, you may go); āctūtum (āctū, on the act, and tum, then).
PARTICLES

CLASSIFICATION OF ADVERBS

217. The classes of Adverbs, with examples, are as follows:—

a. Adverbs of Place¹⁴⁴

hīc, here.	hūc, hither.	hinc, hence.	hāc, by this way.
ibi, there.	eō, thither.	inde, thence.	eā, by that way.
istīc, there.	istūc, thither.	istinc, thence.	istā, by that way.
illīc, there.	illūc, thither.	illinc, thence.	illā (illāc), `` ``
ubi, where.	quō, whither.	unde, whence.	quā, by what way.
alicubi, somewhere.	aliquō, somewhither,	alicunde, from	aliquā, by some way.
	(to) somewhere.	somewhere.
ibīdem, in the same	eōdem, to the same	indidem, from the	eādem, by the same.
place.	place.	same place.	way.
alibī, elsewhere, in	aliō, elsewhere, to	aliunde, from	aliā, in another.
another place.	another place.	another place.	way.
ubiubi, wherever.	quōquō,	undecunque,	quāquā, in whatever.
	whithersoever.	whencesoever.	way.
ubivīs, anywhere,	quōvīs, anywhere,	undique, from every	quāvīs, by whatever.
where you will.	whither you will.	quarter.	way.
sīcubi, if anywhere.	sīquō, if anywhere.	sīcunde, if from	sīquā, if anywhere.
	(anywhither).	anywhere.
nēcubi, lest	nēquō, lest	nēcunde, lest from	nēquā, lest
anywhere.	anywhither.	anywhere.	anywhere.

NOTE.—The demonstrative adverbs hīc, ibi, istīc, illī, illīc, and their correlatives, correspond in signification with the pronouns hīc, is, iste, ille (see § 146), and are often equivalent to these pronouns with a preposition: as, inde = ab eō, etc. So the relative or interrogative ubi corresponds with quī (quis), ali-cubi with aliquis, ubiubi with quisquis, sī-cubi with sīquis (see §§ 147–151, with the table of correlatives in § 152).

ūsque, all the way to; usquam, anywhere; nusquam, nowhere; citrō, to this side; intrō, inwardly; ultrō, beyond (or freely, i.e. beyond what is required); porrō, further on.

quōrsum (for quō vorsum, whither turned?), to what end? hōrsum, this way; prōrsum, forward (prōrsus, utterly); intrōrsum, inwardly; retrōrsum, backward; sūrsum, upward; deorsum, downward; seorsum, apart; aliōrsum, another way.

b. Adverbs of Time

quandō, when? (interrogative); cum (quom), when (relative); ut, when, as; nunc, now; tunc (tum), then; mox, presently; iam, already; dum, while; iam diū, iam dūdum, iam prīdem, long ago, long since.

ADVERBS

prīmum (prīmō), first; deinde (posteā), next after; postrēmum (postrēmō), finally; posteāquam, postquam, when (after that, as soon as).

umquam (unquam), ever; numquam (nunquam), never; semper, always.

aliquandō, at some time, at length; quandōque (quandōcumque), whenever; dēnique, at last.

quotiēns (quotiēs), how often; totiēns, so often; aliquotiēns, a number of times.

cotīdiē, every day; hodiē, to-day; herī, yesterday; crās, to-morrow; prīdiē, the day before; postrīdiē, the day after; in diēs, from day to day.

nōndum, not yet; necdum, nor yet; vixdum, scarce yet; quam prīmum, as soon as possible; saepe, often; crēbrō, frequently; iam nōn, no longer.

c. Adverbs of Manner, Degree, or Cause

quam, how, as; tam, so; quamvīs, however much, although; paene, almost; magis, more; valdē, greatly; vix, hardly.

cūr, quārē, why; ideō, idcircō, proptereā, on this account, because; eō, therefore; ergō, itaque, igitur, therefore.

ita, sīc, so; ut (utī), as, how; utut, utcumque, however.

d. Interrogative Particles

an, -ne, anne, utrum, utrumne, num, whether.

nōnne, annōn, whether not; numquid, ecquid, whether at all.

On the use of the Interrogative Particles, see §§ 332, 335.

e. Negative Particles

nōn, not (in simple denial); haud, minimē, not (in contradiction); nē, not (in prohibition); nēve, neu, nor; nēdum, much less.

nē, lest; neque, nec, nor; nē ... quidem, not even.

nōn modo ... vērum (sed) etiam, not only ... but also.

nōn modo ... sed nē ... quidem, not only NOT ... but not even.

sī minus, if not; quō minus (quōminus), so as not.

quīn (relative), but that; (interrogative), why not ?

nē, nec (in composition), not; so in nesciō, I know not; negō, I say no (âiō, I say yes); negōtium, business (†nec-ōtium); nēmō (nē- and hemō, old form of homō), no one; nē quis, lest any one; neque enim, for ... not.

For the use of Negative Particles, see § 325 ff.

For the Syntax and Peculiar uses of Adverbs, see § 320 ff.

COMPARISON OF ADVERBS

218. The Comparative of Adverbs is the neuter accusative of the comparative of the corresponding adjective; the Superlative is the Adverb in -ē formed regularly from the superlative of the Adjective:— PARTICLES

c=arē, dearly (from cārus, dear); c=arius, c=arissimē.

miserē (miseriter), wretchedly (from miser, wretched); miserius, miserrimē.

leviter (from levis, light); levius, levissimē.

aud=acter (aud=aciter) (from audāx, bold); aud=acius, aud=acissimē.

ben e, well (from bonus, good); melius, optimē.

mal e, ill (from malus, bad); pêius, pessimē.

a. The following are irregular or defective:—

diū, long (in time); di=utius, di=utissimē.

potius, rather; potissimum, first of all, in preference to all.

saepe, often; saepius, oftener, again; saepissimē.

satis, enough; satius, preferable.

secus, otherwise; s=etius, worse.

multum (multō), magis, maximē, much, more, most.

parum, not enough; minus, less; minimē, least.

nūper, newly; n=uperrimē.

temperē, seasonably; temperius.

NOTE.—In poetry the comparative mage is sometimes used instead of magis.

PREPOSITIONS

219. Prepositions were not originally distinguished from Adverbs in form or meaning, but have become specialized in use. They developed comparatively late in the history of language. In the early stages of language development the cases alone were sufficient to indicate the sense, but, as the force of the case-endings weakened, adverbs were used for greater precision (cf. § 338). These adverbs, from their habitual association with particular cases, became Prepositions; but many retained also their independent function as adverbs.

Most prepositions are true case-forms: as, the comparative ablatives extrā, īnfrā, suprā (for †exterā, †īnferā, †superā), and the accusatives circum, cōram, cum (cf. § 215). Circiter is an adverbial formation from circum (cf. § 214. b. N.); praeter is the comparative of prae, propter of prope.¹⁴⁵ Of the remainder, versus is a petrified nominative (participle of vertō); adversus is a compound of versus; trāns is probably an old present participle (cf. in-trā-re); while the origin of the brief forms ab, ad, dē, ex, ob, is obscure and doubtful.

220. Prepositions are regularly used either with the Accusative or with the Ablative.
a. The following prepositions are used with the Accusative:—

	ad, to.	circiter, about.	intrā, inside.
	adversus, against.	cis, citrā, this side.	iūxtā, near.
	adversum, towards.	contrā, against.	ob, on account of.
	ante, before.	ergā, towards.	penes, in the power of.
	apud, at, near.	extrā, outside.	per, through.
	circā, around.	īnfrā, below.	pōne, behind.
	circum, around.	inter, among.	post, after.
PREPOSITIONS	praeter, beyond.	secundum, next to.	ultrā, on the further side.
	prope, near.	suprā, above.	versus, towards.
	propter, on account of.	trāns, across.

b. The following prepositions are used with the Ablative:—¹⁴⁶

	ā, ab, abs, away from, by.	ē, ex, out of.
	absque, without, but for.	prae, in comparison with.
	cōram, in presence of.	prō, in front of, for.
	cum, with.	sine, without.
	dē, from.	tenus, up to, as far as.

c. The following may be used with either the Accusative or the Ablative, but with a difference in meaning:—

	in, into, in.	sub, under.
	subter, beneath.	super, above.

In and sub, when followed by the accusative, indicate motion to, when by the ablative, rest in, a place:

vēnit in aedīs, he came into the house; erat in aedibus, he was in the house.

disciplīna in Britanniā reperta atque inde in Galliam trānslāta esse exīstimātur, the system is thought to have been discovered in Great Britain and thence brought over to Gaul.

sub īlice cōnsēderat, he had seated himself under an ilex.

sub lēgēs mittere orbem, to subject the world to laws (to send the world under laws).

221. The uses of the Prepositions are as follows:— 1. ā, ab, away from,¹⁴⁷ from, off from, with the ablative.
a. Of place: as,— ab urbe profectus est, he set out from the city.
b. Of time: (1) from: as,— ab hōrā tertiā ad vesperam, from the third hour till evening; (2) just after: as,— ab eō magistrātū, after [holding] that office.
c. Idiomatic uses: ā reliqu=is differunt, they differ from the others; ā parvulīs, from early childhood; prope ab urbe, near (not far from) the city; līberāre ab, to set free from; occīsus ab hoste (periit ab hoste), slain by an enemy; ab hāc parte, on this side; ab rē êius, to his advantage; ā rē pūblicā, for the interest of the state. 2. Ad, to, towards, at, near, with the accusative (cf. in, into).
a. Of place: as,— ad urbem vēnit, he came to the city; ad merīdiem, towards the south; ad exercitum, to the army; ad hostem, toward the enemy; ad urbem, near the city.
b. Of time: as,— ad nōnam hōram, till the ninth hour.
c. With persons: as,— ad eum vēnit, he came to him. PARTICLES
d. Idiomatic uses: ad supplicia dēscendunt, they resort to punishment; ad haec respondit, to this he answered; ad tempus, at the [fit] time; adīre ad rem pūblicam, to go into public life; ad petendam pācem, to seek peace; ad latera, on the flank; ad arma, to arms; ad hunc modum, in this way; quem ad modum, how, as; ad centum, nearly a hundred; ad hōc, besides; omnēs ad ūnum, all to a man; ad diem, on the day. 3. Ante, in front of, before, with the accusative (cf. post, after).
a. Of place: as,— ante portam, in front of the gate; ante exercitum, in advance of the army.
b. Of time: as,— ante bellum, before the war.
c. Idiomatic uses: ante urbem captam, before the city was taken; ante diem quīntum (a.d.v.) Kal., the fifth day before the Calends; ante quadriennium, four years before or ago; ante tempus, too soon (before the time). 4. Apud, at, by, among, with the accusative.
a. Of place (rare and archaic): as,— apud forum, at the forum (in the marketplace).
b. With reference to persons or communities: as, — apud Helvētiōs, among the Helvetians; apud populum, before the people; apud aliquem, at one's house; apud sē, at home or in his senses; apud Cicerōnem, in [the works of] Cicero. 5. Circā, about, around, with the accusative (cf. circum, circiter).
a. Of place: templa circā forum, the temples about the forum; circā sē habet, he has with him (of persons).
b. Of time or number (in poetry and later writers): circā eandem hōram, about the same hour; circā īdūs Octōbrīs, about the fifteenth of October; circā decem mīlia, about ten thousand.
c. Figuratively (in later writers), about, in regard to (cf. dē): circā quem pūgna est, with regard to whom, etc.; circā deōs neglegentior, rather neglectful of (i.e. in worshipping) the gods. 6. Circiter, about, with the accusative.
a. Of time or number: circiter īdūs Novembrīs, about the thirteenth of November; circiter merīdiem, about noon. 7. Circum, about, around, with the accusative.
a. Of place: circum haec loca, hereabout; circum Capuam, round Capua; circum illum, with him; lēgātiō circum īnsulās missa, an embassy sent to the islands round about; circum amīcōs, to his friends round about. 8. Contrā, opposite, against, with the accusative.

contrā ītaliam, over against Italy ; contrā haec, in answer to this.

a. Often as adverb: as,— haec contrā, this in reply; contrā autem, but on the other hand; quod contrā, whereas, on the other hand. 9. Cum, with, together with, with the ablative. PREPOSITIONS
a. Of place: as,— vāde mēcum, go with me; cum omnibus impedīmentīs, with all [their] baggage.
b. Of time: as,— prīmā cum lūce, at early dawn (with first light).
c. Idiomatic uses: māgnō cum dolōre, with great sorrow; commūnicāre aliquid cum aliquō, share something with some one; cum malō suō, to his own hurt; cōnflīgere cum hoste, to fight with the enemy; esse cum tēlō, to go armed; cum silentiō, in silence. 10. Dē, down from, from, with the ablative (cf. ab, away from; ex, out of).
a. Of place: as,— dē caelō dēmissus, sent down from heaven; dē nāvibus dēsilīre, to jump down from the ships.
b. Figuratively, concerning, about, of:¹⁴⁸ as,— cōgnōscit dē Clōdī caede, he learns of the murder of Clodius; cōnsilia dē bellō, plans of war.
c. In a partitive sense (compare ex), out of, of: as,— ūnus dē plēbe, one of the people.
d. Idiomatic uses: multīs dē causīs, for many reasons; quā dē causā, for which reason; dē imprōvīsō, of a sudden; dē industriā, on purpose; dē integrō, anew; dē tertiā vigiliā, just at midnight (starting at the third watch); dē mēnse Decembrī nāvigāre, to sail as early as December. 11. Ex, ē, from (the midst, opposed to in), out of, with the ablative (cf. ab and dē).
a. Of place: as,— ex omnibus partibus silvae ēvolāvērunt, they flew out from all parts of the forest; ex Hispāniā, [a man] from Spain.
b. Of time: as,— ex eō diē quīntus, the fifth day from that (four days after); ex hōc diē, from this day forth.
c. Idiomatically or less exactly: ex c=onsul=at=u, right after his consulship; ex êius sententiā, according to his opinion ; ex aequō, justly; ex imprōvīsō, unexpectedly; ex tuā rē, to your advantage; māgnā ex parte, in a great degree; ex equō pūgnāre, to fight on horseback; ex ūsū, expedient; ē regiōne, opposite; quaerere ex aliquō, to ask of some one; ex senātūs cōnsultō, according to the decree of the senate; ex fugā, in [their] flight (proceeding immediately from it); ūnus ē fīliīs, one of the sons. 12. In, with the accusative or the ablative. 1. With the accusative, into (opposed to ex).
a. Of place: as,— in Ītaliam contendit, he hastens into Italy.
b. Of time, till, until: as,— in lūcem, till daylight.
c. Idiomatically or less exactly: in merīdiem, towards the south; amor in (ergā, adversus) patrem, love for his father; in āram cōnfūgit, he fled to the altar (on the steps, or merely to); in diēs, from day to day; in longitūdinem, lengthwise; in lātitūdinem patēbat, extended in width; in haec verba iūrāre, to swear to these words; hunc in modum, in this way; ōrātiō in Catilīnam, a speech against PREPOSITIONS Catiline; in perpetuum, forever; in pêius, for the worse; in diem vīvere, to live from hand to mouth (for the day). 2. With the ablative, in, on, among.

In very various connections: as,— in castrīs, in the camp (cf. ad castra, to, at, or near the camp); in marī, on the sea; in urbe esse, to be in town; in tempore, in season; in scrībendō, while writing; est mihi in animō, I have it in mind, I intend; in ancorīs, at anchor; in hōc homine, in the case of this man; in dubiō esse, to be in doubt.

13. Īnfrā, below, with the accusative. a. Of place: as,— ad mare īnfrā oppidum, by the sea below the town; īnfrā caelum, under the sky. b. Figuratively or less exactly: as,— īnfrā Homērum, later than Homer; īnfrā trēs pedēs, less than three feet; īnfrā elephantōs, smaller than elephants; īnfrā īnfimōs omnīs, the lowest of the low. 14. Inter, between, among, with the accusative. inter mē et Scīpiōnem, between myself and Scipio; inter ōs et offam, between the cup and the lip (the mouth and the morsel); inter hostium tēla, amid the weapons of the enemy; inter omnīs prīmus, first of all; inter bibendum, while drinking; inter sē loquuntur, they talk together. 15. Ob, towards, on account of, with the accusative. a. Literally: (1) of motion (archaic): as, — ob Rōmam, towards Rome (Ennius); ob viam, to the road (preserved as adverb, in the way of). (2) Of place in which, before, in a few phrases: as,— ob oculōs, before the eyes. b. Figuratively, in return for (mostly archaic, probably a word of account, balancing one thing against another): as,— ob mulierem, in pay for the woman; ob rem, for gain. Hence applied to reason, cause, and the like, on account of (a similar mercantile idea), for: as,— ob eam causam, for that reason; quam ob rem (quamobrem), wherefore, why. 16. Per, through, over, with the accusative. a. Of motion: as,— per urbem īre, to go through the city; per mūrōs, over the walls. b. Of time: as,— per hiemem, throughout the winter. c. Figuratively, of persons as means or instruments: as,— per hominēs idōneōs, through the instrumentality of suitable persons; licet per mē, you (etc.) may for all me. Hence, stat per mē, it is through my instrumentality; so, per sē, in and of itself. d. Weakened, in many adverbial expressions: as,— per iocum, in jest; per speciem, in show, ostentatiously. 17. Prae, in front of, with the ablative. a. Literally, of place (in a few connections): as, — prae sē portāre, to carry in one's arms ; prae sē ferre, to carry before one. (hence figuratively) exhibit, proclaim ostentatiously, make known. PREPOSITIONS b. Figuratively, of hindrance, as by an obstacle in front (compare English for): as,— prae gaudiō conticuit, he was silent for joy. c. Of comparison: as,— prae māgnitūdine corporum suōrum, in comparison with their own great size. 18. Praeter, along by, by, with the accusative. a. Literally: as,— praeter castra, by the camp (along by, in front of); praeter oculōs, before the eyes. b. Figuratively, beyond, besides, more than, in addition to, except: as,— praeter spem, beyond hope; praeter aliōs, more than others ; praeter paucōs, with the exception of a few. 19. Prō, in front of, with the ablative. sedēns prō aede Castoris, sitting in front of the temple of Castor; prō populō, in presence of the people. So prō rōstrīs, on [the front of] the rostra; prō contiōne, before the assembly (in a speech). a. In various idiomatic uses: prō lēge, in defence of the law; prō vitulā, instead of a heifer; prō centum mīlibus, as good as a hundred thousand; prō ratā parte, in due proportion; prō hāc vice, for this once; prō cōnsule, in place of consul; prō vīribus, considering his strength; prō virīlī parte, to the best of one's ability; prō tuā prūdentiā, in accordance with your wisdom. 20. Propter, near, by, with the accusative.

propter tē sedet, he sits next you. Hence, on account of (cf. all along of): as,— propter metum, through fear.

21. Secundum,¹⁴⁹ just behind, following, with the accusative. a. Literally: as,— īte secundum mē (Plaut.), go behind me; secundum lītus, near the shore; secundum flūmen, along the stream (cf. secundō flūmine, down stream). b. Figuratively, according to: as,— secundum nātūram, according to nature. 22. Sub, under, up to, with the accusative or the ablative. 1. Of motion, with the accusative: as,— sub montem succēdere, to come close to the hill. a. Idiomatically: sub noctem, towards night; sub lūcem, near daylight; sub haec dicta, at (following) these words. 2. Of rest, with the ablative: as,— sub Iove, in the open air (under the heaven, personified as Jove); sub monte, at the foot of the hill.

a. Idiomatically: sub eōdem tempore, about the same time (just after it).

23. Subter, under, below, with the accusative (sometimes, in poetry, the ablative).

subter togam (Liv.), under his mantle; but,— subter lītore (Catull.), below the shore.

24. Super,¹⁵⁰ with the accusative or the ablative. PARTICLES 1. With the accusative, above, over, on, beyond, upon. a. Of place: super vāllum praecipitārī (Iug. 58), to be hurled over the rampart; super laterēs coria indūcuntur (B.C. ii. 10), hides are drawn over the bricks; super terrae tumulum statuī (Legg. ii. 65), to be placed on the mound of earth; super Numidiam (Iug. 19), beyond Numidia. b. Idiomatically or less exactly: vulnus super vulnus, wound upon wound; super vīnum (Q. C. viii. 4), over his wine. 2. With the ablative, concerning, about (the only use with this case in prose).

hāc super rē, concerning this thing; super tālī rē, about such an affair; litterās super tantā rē exspectāre, to wait for a letter in a matter of such importance.

a. Poetically, in other senses: līgna super focō largē repōnēns (Hor. Od. i. 9. 5), piling logs generously on the fire; nocte super mediā (Aen. ix. 61), after midnight. 25. Suprā, on top of, above, with the accusative.

suprā terram, on the surface of the earth. So also figuratively: as,— suprā hanc memoriam, before our remembrance; suprā mōrem, more than usual; suprā quod, besides.

26. Tenus (postpositive), as far as, up to, regularly with the ablative, sometimes with the genitive (cf. § 359. b). 1. With the ablative: Taurō tenus, as far as Taurus; capulō tenus, up to the hilt. 2. With the genitive: Cumārum tenus (Fam. viii. 1. 2), as far as Cumae.
NOTE 1.—Tenus is frequently connected with the feminine of an adjective pronoun, making an adverbial phrase: as, hāctenus, hitherto; quātenus, so far as; dē hāc rē hāctenus, so much for that (about this matter so far).

NOTE 2.—Tenus was originally a neuter noun, meaning line or extent. In its use with the genitive (mostly poetical) it may be regarded as an adverbial accusative (§ 397. a).
27. Trans, across, over, through, by, with the accusative. a. Of motion: as,— trāns mare currunt, they run across the sea; trāns flūmen ferre, to carry over a river; trāns aethera, through the sky; trāns caput iace, throw over your head. b. Of rest: as,— trāns Rhēnum incolunt, they live across the Rhine. 28. Ultrā, beyond (on the further side), with the accusative. cis Padum ultrāque, on this side of the Po and beyond; ultrā eum numerum, more than that number; ultrā fidem, incredible; ultrā modum, immoderate.
NOTE.—Some adverbs appear as prepositions: as, intus, īnsuper (see § 219).

For Prepositions in Compounds, see § 267.

CONJUNCTIONS

222. Conjunctions, like prepositions (cf. § 219), are closely related to adverbs, and are either petrified cases of nouns, pronouns, and adjectives, or obscured phrases: as, quod, an old accusative; dum, probably an old accusative (cf. tum, cum); vērō, an old neuter ablative of vērus; nihilōminus, none the less; proinde, lit. forward from there. Most conjunctions are connected with pronominal adverbs, which cannot always be referred to their original case-forms.

223. Conjunctions connect words, phrases, or sentences. They are of two classes, Coördinate and Subordinate:—
a. Coördinate, connecting coördinate or similar constructions (see § 278. 2. a). These are:— 1. Copulative or disjunctive, implying a connection or separation of thought as well as of words: as, et, and; aut, or; neque, nor. 2. Adversative, implying a connection of words, but a contrast in thought: as, sed, but. 3. Causal, introducing a cause or reason: as, nam, for. 4. Illative, denoting an inference: as, igitur, therefore.
b. Subordinate, connecting a subordinate or independent clause with that on which it depends (see § 278. 2. b). These are:— 1. Conditional, denoting a condition or hypothesis: as, sī, if; nisi, unless. 2. Comparative, implying comparison as well as condition: as, ac sī, as if. 3. Concessive, denoting a concession or admission: as, quamquam, although (lit. however much it may be true that, etc.). 4. Temporal: as, postquam, after. 5. Consecutive, expressing result: as, ut, so that. 6. Final, expressing purpose: as, ut, in order that; nē, that not. 7. Causal, expressing cause: as, quia, because. 224. Conjunctions are more numerous and more accurately distinguished in Latin than in English. The following list includes the common conjunctions¹⁵¹ and conjunctive phrases:—

COÖRDINATE

a. Copulative and Disjunctive

et, -que, atque (ac), and.

et ... et; et ... -que (atque); -que ... et; -que ... -que (poetical), both ... and.

etiam, quoque, neque nōn (necnōn), quīn etiam, itidem (item), also.

cum ... tum; tum ... tum, both ... and; not only ... but also.

PARTICLES

quā ... quā, on the one hand ... on the other hand.

modo ... modo, now ... now.

aut ... aut; vel ... vel (-ve), either ... or.

sīve (seu) ... sīve, whether ... or.

nec (neque) ... nec (neque); neque ... nec; nec ... neque (rare), neither ... nor

et ... neque, both ... and not.

nec ... et; nec (neque) ... -que, neither (both not) ... and.

b. Adversative

sed, autem, vērum, vērō, at, atquī, but.

tamen, attamen, sed tamen, vērum tamen, but yet, nevertheless.

nihilōminus, none the less.

at vērō, but in truth; enimvērō, for in truth.

cēterum, on the other hand, but.

c. Causal

nam, namque, enim, etenim, for.

quāpropter, quārē, quamobrem, quōcircā, unde, wherefore, whence.

d. Illative

ergō, igitur, itaque, ideō, idcircō, inde, proinde, therefore, accordingly.

SUBORDINATE

a. Conditional

sī, if; sīn, but if; nisi (nī), unless, if not; quod sī, but if.

modo, dum, dummodo, sī modo, if only, provided.

dummodo nē (dum nē, modo nē), provided only not.

b. Comparative

ut, utī, sīcut, just as; velut, as, so as; prout, praeut, ceu, like as, according as.

tamquam (tanquam), quasi, ut sī, ac sī, velut, velut=i, velut sī, as if.

quam, atque (ac), as, than.

c. Concessive

etsī, etiamsī, tametsī, even if; quamquam (quanquam), although.

quamvīs, quantumvīs, quamlibet, quantumlibet, however much.

licet (properly a verb), ut, cum (quom), though, suppose, whereas.

d. Temporal

cum (quom), quandō, when; ubi, ut, when, as; cum prīmum, ut prīmum, ubi prīmum, simul, simul ac, simul atque, as soon as; postquam (posteāquam), after.

prius ... quam, ante ... quam, before; nōn ante ... quam, not ... until.

dum, ūsque dum, dōnec, quoad, until, as long as, while.

INTERJECTIONS

e. Consecutive and Final

ut (utī), quō, so that, in order that.

nē, ut nē, lest (that ... not, in order that not); nēve (neu), that not, nor.

quīn (after negatives), quōminus, but that (so as to prevent), that not.

f. Causal

quia, quod, quoniam (†quom-iam), quandō, because.

cum (quom), since.

quandōquidem, sī quidem, quippe, ut pote, since indeed, inasmuch as.

proptereā ... quod, for this reason ... that.

On the use of Conjunctions, see §§ 323, 324.

INTERJECTIONS

225. Some Interjections are mere natural exclamations of feeling; others are derived from inflected parts of speech, e.g. the imperatives em, lo (probably for eme, take); age, come, etc. Names of deities occur in herclē, pol (from Pollux), etc. Many Latin interjections are borrowed from the Greek, as euge, euhoe, etc.

226. The following list comprises most of the Interjections in common use:—

ō, ēn, ecce, ehem, papae, vāh (of astonishment).

iō, ēvae, ēvoe, euhoe (of joy).

heu, ēheu, vae, alas (of sorrow).

heus, eho, ehodum, ho (of calling); st, hist.

êia, euge (of praise).

prō (of attestation): as, prō pudor, shame !

FORMATION OF WORDS

227. All formation of words is originally a process of composition. An element significant in itself is added to another significant element, and thus the meaning of the two is combined. No other combination is possible for the formation either of inflections or of stems. Thus, in fact, words (since roots and stems are significant elements, and so words) are first placed side by side, then brought under one accent, and finally felt as one word. The gradual process is seen in sea voyage, sea-nymph, seaside. But as all derivation, properly so called, appears as a combination of uninflected stems, every type of formation in use must antedate inflection. Hence words were not in strictness derived either from nouns or from verbs, but from stems which were neither, because they were in fact both; for the distinction between noun-stems and verb-stems had not yet been made. After the development of Inflection, however, that one of several kindred words which seemed the simplest was regarded as the primitive form, and from this the other words of the group were thought to be derived. Such supposed processes of formation were then imitated, often erroneously, and in this way new modes of derivation arose. Thus new adjectives were formed from nouns, new nouns from adjectives, new adjectives from verbs, and new verbs from adjectives and nouns. In course of time the real or apparent relations of many words became confused, so that nouns and adjectives once supposed to come from nouns were often assigned to verbs, and others once supposed to come from verbs were assigned to nouns. Further, since the language was constantly changing, many words went out of use, and do not occur in the literature as we have it. Thus many Derivatives survive of which the Primitive is lost. Finally, since all conscious word-formation is imitative, intermediate steps in derivation were sometimes omitted, and occasionally apparent Derivatives occur for which no proper Primitive ever existed.

ROOTS AND STEMS

228. Roots¹⁵² are of two kinds:— 1. Verbal, expressing ideas of action or condition (sensible phenomena). 2. Pronominal, expressing ideas of position and direction. From verbal roots come all parts of speech except pronouns and certain particles derived from pronominal roots.

229. Stems are either identical with roots or derived from them. They are of two classes: (1) Noun-stems (including Adjective-stems) and (2) Verb-stems.
NOTE.—Noun-stems and verb-stems were not originally different (see p.163), and in the consciousness of the Romans were often confounded; but in general they were treated as distinct.

230. Words are formed by inflection: (1) from roots inflected as stems; (2) from derived stems (see § 232). PRIMARY SUFFIXES

231. A root used as a stem may appear —
a. With a short vowel: as, duc-is (dux), DUC; nec-is (nex); i-s, i-d. So in verbs: as, es-t, fer-t (cf. § 174. 2).
b. With a long vowel¹⁵³: as, lūc-is (lūx), LUC; pāc-is (pāx). So in verbs: dūc-ō, ī-s for †eis, from eō, īre; fātur from fārī.
c. With reduplication: as, fur-fur, mar-mor, mur-mur. So in verbs: as, gi-gnō (root GEN), si-stō (root STA).

DERIVED STEMS AND SUFFIXES

232. Derived Stems are formed from roots or from other stems by means of suffixes. These are:— 1. Primary: added to the root, or (in later times by analogy) to verb-stems. 2. Secondary: added to a noun-stem or an adjective-stem. Both primary and secondary suffixes are for the most part pronominal roots (§ 228. 2), but a few are of doubtful origin.
NOTE 1.—The distinction between primary and secondary suffixes, not being original (see § 227), is continually lost sight of in the development of a language. Suffixes once primary are used as secondary, and those once secondary are used as primary. Thus in hosticus (hosti c̆us) the suffix -cus, originally ko- (see § 234. II. 12) primary, as in paucus, has become secondary, and is thus regularly used to form derivatives; but in pudīcus, aprīcus, it is treated as primary again, because these words were really or apparently connected with verbs. So in English -able was borrowed as a primary suffix (tolerable, eatable), but also makes forms like clubbable, salable; -some is properly a secondary suffix, as in toilsome, lonesome, but makes also such words as meddlesome, venturesome.

NOTE 2.—It is the stem of the word, not the nominative, that is formed by the derivative suffix. For convenience, however, the nominative will usually be given.

Primary Suffixes

233. The words in Latin formed immediately from the root by means of Primary Suffixes, are few. For — 1. Inherited words so formed were mostly further developed by the addition of other suffixes, as we might make an adjective lone-ly-some-ish, meaning nothing more than lone, lonely, or lonesome. 2. By such accumulation of suffixes, new compound suffixes were formed which crowded out even the old types of derivation. Thus,— FORMATION OF WORDS A word like mēns, mentis, by the suffix ōn- (nom. -ō), gave mentiō, and this, being divided into men t̆iō, gave rise to a new type of abstract nouns in -tiō: as, lēgā-tiō, embassy. A word like audītor, by the suffix io- (nom. -ius), gave rise to adjectives like audītōr-ius, of which the neuter (audītōrium) is used to denote the place where the action of the verb is performed. Hence tōrio- (nom. -tōrium), N., becomes a regular noun-suffix (§ 250. a). So in English such a word as suffocation gives a suffix -ation, and with this is made starvation, though there is no such word as starvate.

234. Examples of primary stem-suffixes are:—
I. Vowel suffixes:—

1. o- (M., N.), ā- (F.), found in nouns and adjectives of the first two declensions: as, sonus, lūdus, vagus, toga (root TEG).

2. i-, as in ovis, avis; in Latin frequently changed, as in rūpēs, or lost, as in scobs (scobis, root SCAB).

3. u-, disguised in most adjectives by an additional i, as in suā-vis (for †suād-vis, instead of †suā-dus, cf. ἠδύς ten-uis (root TEN in tendō), and remaining alone only in nouns of the fourth declension, as acus (root AK, sharp, in ācer, aciēs, ὠκύς, pecū, genū.

II. Suffixes with a consonant:—

1. to- (M., N.), tā- (F.), in the regular perfect passive participle, as tēctus, tēctum; sometimes with an active sense, as in pōtus, prānsus; and found in a few words not recognized as participles, as pūtus (cf. pūrus), altus (alō).

2. ti- in abstracts and rarely in nouns of agency, as messis, vestis, pars, mēns. But in many the i is lost.

3. tu- in abstracts (including supines), sometimes becoming concretes, as āctus, lūctus.

4. no- (M., N.), nā- (F.), forming perfect participles in other languages, and in Latin making adjectives of like participial meaning, which often become nouns, as māgnus, plēnus, rēgnum.

5. ni-, in nouns of agency and adjectives, as īgnis, sēgnis.

6. nu-, rare, as in manus, pīnus, cornū.

7. mo- (mā-), with various meanings, as in animus, almus, fīrmus, forma.

8. vo- (vā-) (commonly uo-, uā-), with an active or passive meaning, as in equus (equos), arvum, cōnspicuus, exiguus, vacīvus (vacuus).

9. ro- (rā-), as in ager (stem ag-ro-), integer (cf. intāctus), sacer, plērī-que (cf. plēnus, plētus).

10. lo- (lā-), as in caelum (for †caed-lum), chisel, exemplum, sella (for †sedla).

11. yo- (yā-), forming gerundives in other languages, and in Latin making adjectives and abstracts, including many of the first and fifth declensions, as eximius, aūdācia, Flōrentia, perniciēs.

12. ko- (kā-), sometimes primary, as in paucī (cf. πα~υρος, locus (for stīocus). In many cases the vowel of this termination is lost, leaving a consonant stem: as, apex, cortex, loquāx.

DERIVATION OF NOUNS

13. en- (on-, ēn-, ōn-), in nouns of agency and abstracts: as, aspergō, compāgō (- inis), gerō (-ōnis).

14. men-, expressing means, often passing into the action itself: as, agmen, flūmen, fulmen.

15. ter- (tor-, tēr-, tōr-, tr-), forming nouns of agency: as, pater (i.e. protector), frāter (i.e. supporter), ōrātor.

16. tro-, forming nouns of means: as, claustrum (CLAUD), mūlctrum (MULG).

17. es- (os-), forming names of actions, passing into concretes: as, genus (generis), tempus (see § 15. 4). The infinitive in -ere (as in reg-ere) is a locative of this stem (-er-e for †-es-i).

18. nt- (ont-, ent-), forming present active participles: as, legēns, with some adjectives from roots unknown: as, frequēns, recēns.

The above, with some suffixes given below, belong to the Indo-European parent speech, and most of them were not felt as living formations in the Latin.

Significant Endings

235. Both primary and secondary suffixes, especially in the form of compound suffixes, were used in Latin with more or less consciousness of their meaning. They may therefore be called Significant Endings. They form: (1) Nouns of Agency; (2) Abstract Nouns (including Names of Actions); (3) Adjectives (active or passive).
NOTE.—There is really no difference in etymology between an adjective and a noun, except that some formations are habitually used as adjectives and others as nouns (§ 20. b. N.^2).

DERIVATION OF NOUNS

Nouns of Agency

236. Nouns of Agency properly denote the agent or doer of an action. But they include many words in which the idea of agency has entirely faded out, and also many words used as adjectives.
a. Nouns denoting the agent or doer of an action are formed from roots or verb-stems by means of the suffixes —

-tor (-sor), M.; -trīx, F.
can-tor, can-trīx, singer;	can-ere (root CAN), to sing.
vic-tor, vic-trīx, conqueror (victorious);	vinc-ere (VIC), to conquer.
tōn-sor (for †tond-tor), tōns-trīx (for
†tond-trīx), hair-cutter;	tond-ēre (TOND as root), to shear.
petī-tor, candidate;	pet- ere (PET; petī- as stem), to seek.

FORMATION OF WORDS By analogy -tor is sometimes added to noun-stems, but these may be stems of lost verbs: as, viā-tor, traveller, from via, way (but cf. the verb inviō).
NOTE 1.—The termination -tor (-sor) has the same phonetic change as the supine ending -tum (-sum), and is added to the same form of root or verb-stem as that ending. The stem-ending is tōr- (§ 234. II. 15), which is shortened in the nominative.

NOTE 2.—The feminine form is always -trīx. Masculines in -sor lack the feminine, except expulsor (expultrīx) and tōnsor (tōnstrīx).

b. t-, M. or F., added to verb-stems makes nouns in -es (-itis, -etis; stem it-, et-) descriptive of a character:—

prae-stes, -stitis, (verb-stem from root STA, stāre, stand), guardian.

teges, -etis (verb-stem tege-, cf. tegō, cover), a coverer, a mat.

pedes, -itis (pēs, ped-is, foot, and I, root of īre, go), foot-soldier.

c. -ō (genitive -ōnis, stem ōn-), M., added to verb-stems¹⁵⁴ indicates a person employed in some specific art or trade:—

com-bibō (BIB as root in bibō, bibere, drink), a pot-companion.

gerō, -ōnis (GES in gerō, gerere, carry), a carrier.

NOTE.—This termination is also used to form many nouns descriptive of personal characteristics (cf. § 255).

Names of Actions and Abstract Nouns

237. Names of Actions are confused, through their terminations, with real abstract nouns (names of qualities), and with concrete nouns denoting means and instrument. They are also used to express the concrete result of an action (as often in English). Thus legiō is literally the act of collecting, but comes to mean legion (the body of soldiers collected); cf. levy in English.

238. Abstract Nouns and Names of Actions are formed from roots and verb-stems by means of the endings—
a. Added to roots or forms conceived as roots—

NOM.	-or, M.	- es, F.	-us, N.
GEN.	-ōris	-is	-eris or -oris
STEM	ōr- (earlier ōs-)	i-	er- (earlier e/_os-)

tim-or, fear;	timēre, to fear.
am-or, love;	amāre, to love.
sēd-ēs, seat;	sedēre, to sit.
caed-ēs, slaughter;	caedere, to kill.
genus, birth, race;	GEN, to be born (root of gignō, bear).

NAMES OF ACTIONS AND ABSTRACT NOUNS
NOTE.—Many nouns of this class are formed by analogy from imaginary roots: as facinus from a supposed root FACIN.

b. Apparently added to roots or verb-stems—

NOM.	-iō, F.	-tiō (-siō), F.	-tūra (-sūra), F.	-tus, M.
GEN.	-iōnis	-tiōnis (-siōnis)	-tūrae (-sūrae)	-tūs (-sūs)
STEM	iōn-	tiōn- (siōn-)	tūrā- (sūrā-)	tu- (su-)

	leg-iō, a collecting (levy), a legion;	legere, to collect.
	reg-iō, a direction, a region;	regere, to direct.
	vocā-tiō, a calling;	vocāre, to call.
	mōlī-tiō, a toiling;	mōlīrī, to toil.
	scrīp-tūra, a writing;	scrībere, to write.
	sēn-sus (for †sent-tus), feeling;	sentīre, to feel.

NOTE 1.—-tiō, -tūra, -tus are added to roots or verb-stems precisely as -tor, with the same phonetic change (cf. § 236. a. N.^1). Hence they are conveniently associated with the supine stem (see § 178). They sometimes form nouns when there is no corresponding verb in use: as, senātus, senate (cf. senex); mentiō, mention (cf. mēns); fētūra, off-spring (cf. fētus); litterātūra, literature (cf. litterae); cōnsulātus, consulship (cf. cōnsul).

NOTE 2.—Of these endings, -tus was originally primary (cf. § 234. II. 3.); -iō is a compound formed by adding ōn- to a stem ending in a vowel (originally i): as, diciō (cf. -dicus and dicis); -tiō is a compound formed by adding ōn- to stems in ti-: as, gradātiō (cf. gradātim); -tūra is formed by adding -ra, feminine of -rus, to stems in tu-: as, nātūra from nātus; statūra from status (cf. figūra, of like meaning, from a simple u- stem, †figu-s; and mātūrus, Mātūta).

239. Nouns denoting acts, or means and results of acts, are formed from roots or verb-stems by the use of the suffixes—

-men, N.; -mentum, N.; -mōnium, N.; -mōnia, F.
ag-men, line of march, band;	AG, root of agere, to lead.
regi-men, rule;	regi- (rege-), stem of regere, to direct.
regi-mentum, rule;
certā-men, contest, battle;	certā-, stem of certāre, to contend.

So colu-men, pillar; mō-men, movement; nō-men, name; flū-men, stream.

testi-mōnium, testimony;	testārī, to witness.
queri-mōnia, complaint;	querī, to complain.

-mōnium and -mōnia are also used as secondary, forming nouns from other nouns and from adjectives: as, sāncti-mōnia, sanctity (sānctus, holy); mātri-mōnium, marriage (māter, mother).
NOTE.—Of these endings, -men is primary (cf. § 234. II. 14); -mentum is a compound of men- and to-, and appears for the most part later in the language than -men: as, mōmen, movement (Lucr.); mōmentum (later). So elementum is a development from L-M-N-a, l-m-n's (letters of the alphabet), changed to elementa along with other nouns in -men. -mōnium and -mōnia were originally compound secondary suffixes formed from mōn- (a by-form of men-), which was early associated with mo-. Thus almus FORMATION OF WORDS (stem almo-), fostering; Almōn, a river near Rome; alimōnia, support. But the last was formed directly from alō when -mōnia had become established as a supposed primary suffix.

240. Nouns denoting means or instrument are formed from roots and verb-stems (rarely from noun-stems) by means of the neuter suffixes—

-bulum, -culum, -brum, -orum, -trum
pā-bulum, fodder;	pāscere, to feed.
sta-bulum, stall;	stāre, to stand.
vehi-culum, wagon;	vehere, to carry.
candēlā-brum, candlestick;	candēla, candle (a secondary formation).
sepul-crum, tomb;	sepelīre, to bury.
claus-trum (†claud-trum), bar;	claudere, to shut.
arā-trum, plough;	arāre, to plough.

NOTE.—-trum (stem tro-) was an old formation from tor- (§ 234. II. 15), with the stem suffix o-, and -clum (stem clo- for tlo-) appears to be related; -culum is the same as -clum; -bulum contains lo- (§ 234. II. 9, 10) and -brum is closely related.

a. A few masculines and feminines of the same formation occur as nouns and adjectives:—

fā-bula, tale;	fārī, to speak.
rīdi-culus, laughable;	rīdēre, to laugh.
fa-ber, smith;	facere, to make.
late-bra, hiding-place;	latēre, to hide.
tere-bra, auger;	terere, to bore.
mulc-tra, milk-pail;	mulgēre, to milk.

241. Abstract Nouns, mostly from adjective-stems, rarely from noun-stems, are formed by means of the secondary feminine suffixes—

-ia (-iēs), -tia (-tiēs), -tās, -tūs, -tūdō
audāc-ia, boldness;	audāx, bold.
pauper-iēs, poverty;	pauper, poor.
trīsti-tia, sadness;	trīstis, sad.
sēgni-tiēs, laziness;	sēgnis, lazy.
boni-tās, goodness;	bonus, good.
senec-tūs, age;	senex, old.
māgni-tūdō, greatness;	māgnus, great.

1. In stems ending in o- or ā- the stem-vowel is lost before -ia (as superb-ia) and appears as i before -tās, -tūs, -tia (as in boni-tās, above). 2. Consonant stems often insert i before -tās: as, loquāx (stem loquāc-), loquāci-tās; but hones-tās, mâies-tās (as if from old adjectives in -es), ūber-tās, volup-tās. o after i is changed to e: as, pius (stem pio-), pie-tās; socius, socie-tās. NEUTER ABSTRACTS
a. In like manner -dō and -gō (F.) form abstract nouns, but are associated with verbs and apparently added to verb-stems:—

cupī-dō, desire, from cupere, to desire (as if from stem cupī-).

dulcē-dō, sweetness (cf. dulcis, sweet), as if from a stem dulcē-, cf. dulcē-scō.

lumbā-gō, lumbago (cf. lumbus, loin), as if from †lumbō, -āre.

NOTE.—Of these, -ia is inherited as secondary (cf. § 234. II. 11). -tia is formed by adding -ia to stems with a t -suffix: as, mīlitia, from mīles (stem mīlit-); molestia from molestus; clēmentia from clēmēns; whence by analogy, mali-tia, avāri-tia. -tās is inherited, but its component parts, tā- t̆i-, are found as suffixes in the same sense: as, senecta from senex; sēmen-tis from sēmen. -tūs is tū- + ti-, cf. servitū-dō. -dō and -gō appear only with long vowels, as from verb-stems, by a false analogy; but -dō is do- ō̆n-: as, cupidus, cupīdō; gravidus, gravēdō (cf. gravē-scō); albidus, albēdō (cf. albēscō); formidus, hot, formīdō (cf. formīdulōsus), (hot flash?) fear; -gō is possibly co- + ōn-; cf. vorāx, vorāgō, but cf. Cethēgus. -tūdō is compounded of -dō with tu -stems, which acquire a long vowel from association with verb-stems in u- (cf. volūmen, from volvō): as, cōnsuētū-dō, valētū-dō, habitū-dō, sollicitū-dō; whence servitūdō (cf. servitūs, -t=utis).

b. Neuter Abstracts, which easily pass into concretes denoting offices and groups, are formed from noun-stems and perhaps from verb-stems by means of the suffixes—

-ium, -tium hospit-ium, hospitality, an inn;¹⁵⁵	hospes (gen. hospit-is), a guest.
collēg-ium, colleagueship, a college;	collēga, a colleague.
auspic-ium, soothsaying, an omen;	auspex (gen. auspic-is), a soothsayer.
gaud-ium, joy;	gaudēre, to rejoice.
effug-ium, escape;	effugere, to escape.
benefic-ium, a kindness;	benefacere, to benefit; cf. beneficus.
dēsīder-ium, longing;	dēsīderāre, to miss, from †dē-sīdēs, out
	of place, of missing soldiers.
adverb-ium, adverb;	ad verbum, [added] to a verb.
interlūn-ium, time of new moon;	inter lūnās, between moons.
rēgifug-ium, flight of the kings;	rēgis fuga, flight of a king.
servi-tium, slavery, the slave class;	servus, a slave.

Vowel stems lose their vowel before -ium: as, collēg-ium, from collēga.
NOTE.—-ium is the neuter of the adjective suffix -ius. It is an inherited primary suffix, but is used with great freedom as secondary. -tium is formed like -tia, by adding -ium to stems with t: as, exit-ium, equit-ium (cf. exitus, equitēs); so, by analogy, calvitium, servitium (from calvus, servus).

c. Less commonly, abstract nouns (which usually become concrete) are formed from noun-stems (confused with verb-stems) by means of the suffixes— FORMATION OF WORDS

-nia, F.; -nium, -lium, -cinium, N.
pecū-nia, money (chattels);	pecū, cattle.
contici-nium, the hush of night;	conticēscere, to become still.
auxi-lium, help;	augēre, to increase.
lātrō-cinium, robbery;	latrō, robber (cf. latrōcinor, rob, implying
	an adjective †latrōcinus).

For Diminutives and Patronymics, see § § 243, 244.

DERIVATION OF ADJECTIVES

242. Derivative Adjectives, which often become nouns, are either Nominal (from nouns or adjectives) or Verbal (as from roots or verb-stems).

Nominal Adjectives

243. Diminutive Adjectives are usually confined to one gender, that of the primitive, and are used as Diminutive Nouns. They are formed by means of the suffixes—

-ulus (-a, -um), -olus (after a vowel), -culus, -ellus, -illus rīv-ulus, a streamlet;	rīvus, a brook.
gladi-olus, a small sword;	gladius, a sword.
fīli-olus, a little son;	fīlius, a son.
fīli-ola, a little daughter;	fīlia, a daughter.
ātri-olum, a little hall;	ātrium, a hall.
homun-culus, a dwarf;	homō, a man.
auri-cula, a little ear;	auris, an ear.
mūnus-culum, a little gift;	mūnus, N., a gift.
cōdic-illī, writing-tablets;	cōdex, a block.
mis-ellus, rather wretched;	miser, wretched.
lib-ellus, a little book;	liber, a book.
aure-olus (-a, -um), golden;	aureus (-a, -um), golden.
parv-olus (later parv -ulus), very small;	parvus (-a, -um), little.
mâius-culus, somewhat larger;	mâior (old mâiōs), greater.

NOTE 1.—These diminutive endings are all formed by adding -lus to various stems. The formation is the same as that of -ulus in § 251. But these words became settled as diminutives, and retained their connection with nouns. So in English the diminutives whitish, reddish, are of the same formation as bookish and snappish. -culus comes from -lus added to adjectives in -cus formed from stems in n- and s-: as, iuven-cus, Aurun-cus (cf. Aurunculêius), prīs-cus, whence the cu becomes a part of the termination, and the whole ending (-culus) is used elsewhere, but mostly with n- and s- stems, in accordance with its origin.

NOTE 2.—Diminutives are often used to express affection, pity, or contempt: as, dēliciolae, little pet; muliercula, a poor (weak) woman; Graeculus, a miserable Greek
NOMINAL ADJECTIVES
a. -ciō, added to stems in n-, has the same diminutive force, but is used with masculines only: as, homun-ciō, a dwarf (from homō, a man).

244. Patronymics, indicating descent or relationship, are formed by adding to proper names the suffixes —

-adēs, -idēs, -īdēs, -eus, M.; -ās, -is, -ēis, F.

These words, originally Greek adjectives, have almost all become nouns in Latin:—

Atlās: Atlanti-adēs, Mercury; Atlant-id es (Gr. plur.), the Pleiads.

Scīpiō: Scīpi-adēs, son of Scipio.

Tyndareus: Tyndar-idēs, Castor or Pollux, son of Tyndarus; Tyndar-is, Helen, daughter of Tyndarus.

Anchīsēs: Anchīsi-adēs, Æneas, son of Anchises.

Thēseus: Thēs-īdēs, son of Theseus.

Tȳdeus: Tȳd-īdēs, Diomedes, son of Tydeus.

Oīleus: Âiāx Oīl-eus, son of Oileus.

Cisseus: Cissē-is, Hecuba, daughter of Cisseus.

Thaumās: Thaumant-iās, Iris, daughter of Thaumas.

Hesperus: Hesper-ides (from Hesper-is, -idis), plur., the daughters of Hesperus, the Hesperides.

245. Adjectives meaning full of, prone to, are formed from noun-stems with the suffixes —

-ōsus, -lēns, -lentus
fluctu-ōsus, billowy;	fluctus, a billow.
form-ōsus, beautiful;	forma, beauty.
perīcul-ōsus, dangerous;	perīculum, danger.
pesti-lēns, pesti-lentus, pestilent;	pestis, pest.
vīno-lentus, vīn-ōsus, given to drink;	vīnum, wine.

246. Adjectives meaning provided with are formed from nouns by means of the regular participial endings —

-tus, -ātus,-ītus, -ūtus
fūnes-tus, deadly;	fūnus (st. fūner-, older fūn^e/_os-), *death*.
hones-tus, honorable;	honor, honor.
faus-tus (for †faves-tus), favorable;	favor, favor.
barb-ātus, bearded;	barba, a beard.
turr-ītus, turreted;	turris, a tower.
corn-ūtus, horned;	cornū, a horn.

NOTE.—-ātus, -ītus, -ūtus, imply reference to an imaginary verb-stem; -tus is added directly to nouns without any such reference.
FORMATION OF WORDS

247. Adjectives of various meanings, but signifying in general made of or belonging to, are formed from nouns by means of the suffixes —

-eus, -ius, -āceus, -īcius, -āneus (-neus), -ticus
aur-eus, golden;	aurum, gold.
patr-ius, paternal;	pater, a father.
uxōr-ius, uxorious;	uxor, a wife.
ros-āceus, of roses;	rosa, a rose.
later-īcius, of brick;	later, a brick.
praesent-āneus, operating instantly;	praesēns, present.
extr-āneus, external;	extrā, without.
subterr-āneus, subterranean;	sub terrā, underground.
salīg-neus, of willow;	salix, willow.
volā-ticus, winged (volātus, a flight);	volāre, to fly.
domes-ticus, of the house, domestic;	domus, a house.
silvā-ticus, sylvan;	silva, a wood.

NOTE.—-ius is originally primitive (§ 234. II. 11); -eus corresponds to Greek -ειo , -εo , and has lost a y-sound (cf. yo-, § 234. II. 11): -īcius and -āceus are formed by adding -ius and -eus to stems in ī-c-, ā-c- (suffix ko-, § 234. II. 12); -neus is no- -ĕus (§ 234. II. 4); -āneus is formed by adding -neus to ā-stems; -ticus is a formation with -cus (cf. hosti-cus with silvā-ticus), and has been affected by the analogy of participial stems in to- (nominative -tus).

248. Adjectives denoting pertaining to are formed from noun-stems with the suffixes —

-ālis, -āris, -ēlis, -īlis, -ūlis
nātūr-ālis, natural;	nātūra, nature.
popul-āris, fellow-countryman;	populus, a people.
patru-ēlis, cousin;	patruus, uncle.
host-īlis, hostile;	hostis, an enemy.
cur-ūlis, curule;	currus, a chariot.

NOTE.—The suffixes arise from adding -lis (stem li-) to various vowel stems. The long vowels are due partly to confusion between stem and suffix (cf. vītā-lis, from vītā-, with rēg-ālis), partly to confusion with verb-stems: cf. Aprīlis (aperīre), edūlis (edere), with senīlis (senex). -ris is an inherited suffix, but in most of these formations -āris arises by differentiation for -ālis in words containing an 1 (as mīlit-āris).

249. Adjectives with the sense of belonging to are formed by means of the suffixes —

-ānus, -ēnus, -īnus; -ās, -ēnsis; -cus, -acus (-ācus), -icus; -eus, -êius, -icius

1. So from common nouns:—

mont-ānus, of the mountains;	mōns (stem monti-), mountain.
veter-ānus, veteran;	vetus (stem veter-), old.
antelūc-ānus, before daylight;	ante lūcem, before light.
NOMINAL ADJECTIVES terr-ēnus, earthly;	terra, earth.
ser-ēnus, calm (of evening stillness);	sērus, late.
coll-īnus, of a hill;	collis, hill.
dīv-īnus, divine;	dīvus, god.
lībert-īnus, of the class of freedmen;	lībertus, one's freedman.
cûi-ās, of what country?	quis, who?
īnfim-ās, of the lowest rank;	īnfimus, lowest.
for-ēnsis, of a market-place, or the Forum;	forum, a market-place.
cīvi-cus, civic, of a citizen;	cīvis, a citizen.
fullōn-icus, of a fuller;	fullō, a fuller.
mer-ācus, pure;	merum, pure wine.
fēmin-eus, of a woman, feminine;	fēmina, a woman.
lact-eus, milky;	lac, milk (stem lacti-).
plēb-ēius, of the commons, plebeian;	plēbēs, the commons.
patr-icius, patrician;	pater, father.

2. But especially from proper nouns to denote belonging to or coming from:

Rōm-ānus, Roman;	Rōma, Rome.
Sull-ānī, Sullaś veterans;	Sulla.
Cyzic-ēnī, Cyzicenes, people of Cyzicus;	Cyzicus.
Ligur-īnus, of Liguria;	Liguria.
Arpīn-ās, of Arpinum;	Arpīnum.
Sicili-ēnsis, Sicilian;	Sicilia, Sicily.
Īli-acus, Trojan (a Greek form);	Īlium, Troy.
Platōn-icus, Platonic;	Platō.
Aquil-êius, a Roman name;	Aquila.
Aquil-êia, a town in Italy;

a. Many derivative adjectives with these endings have by usage become nouns:—

Silv-ānus, M., a god of the woods;	silva, a wood.
membr-āna, F., skin;	membrum, limb.
Aemili-ānus, M., name of Scipio Africanus;	Aemilia (g=ens).
lani-ēna, F., a butcher's stall;	lanius, butcher.
Aufidi-ēnus, M., a Roman name;	†Aufidius (Aufidus).
inquil-īnus, M., a lodger;	incola, an inhabitant.
Caec-īna, used as M., a Roman name;	caecus, blind.
ru-īna, F., a fall;	ruō, fall (no noun existing).
doctr-īna, F., learning;	doctor, teacher.

NOTE.—Of these terminations, -ānus, -ēnus, -īnus are compounded from -nus added to a stem-vowel: as, arca, arcānus; collis, collīnus. The long vowels come from a confusion with verb-stems (as in plē-nus, fīnī-tus, tribū-tus), and from the noun-stem in ā-: as, arcānus. A few nouns occur of similar formation, as if from verb-stems in ō- and ū-: as, colōnus (colō, cf. incola), patrōnus (cf. patrō, -āre), tribūnus (cf. tribuō, tribus), Portūnus (cf. portus), Vacūna (cf. vacō, vacuus).

250. Other adjectives meaning in a general way belonging to (especially of places and times) are formed with the suffixes — FORMATION OF WORDS

-ter (-tris), -ester (-estris), -timus, -nus, -ernus, -urnus, -ternus (-turnus)

palūs-ter, of the marshes;	palūs, a marsh.
pedes-ter, of the foot-soldiers;	pedes, a footman.
sēmēs-tris, lasting six months;	sex mēnsēs, six months.
silv-ester, silv-estris, woody;	silva, a wood.
fini-timus, neighboring, on the borders;	fīnis, an end.
mari-timus, of the sea;	mare, sea.
vēr-nus, vernal;	vēr, spring.
hodi-ernus, of to-day;	hodiē, to-day.
di-urnus, daily;	diēs, day.
hes-ternus, of yesterday;	herī (old hesī), yesterday.
diū-turnus, lasting;	diū, long (in time).

NOTE.—Of these, -ester is formed by adding tri- (cf. tro-, § 234. II. 16) to stems in t- or d-. Thus †pedet-tri- becomes pedestri-, and others follow the analogy. -nus is an inherited suffix (§ 234. II. 4). -ernus and -urnus are formed by adding -nus to s-stems: as, diur-nus (for †dius-nus), and hence, by analogy, hodiernus (hodiē). By an extension of the same principle were formed the suffixes -ternus and -turnus from words like paternus and nocturnus.

a. Adjectives meaning belonging to are formed from nouns by means of the suffixes —

-ārius, -tōrius (-sōrius)
ōrdin-ārius, regular;	ōrdō, rank, order.
argent-ārius, of silver or money;	argentum, silver.
extr-ārius, stranger;	extrā, outside.
meri-tōrius, profitable;	meritus, earned.
dēvor-sōrius, of an inn (cf. § 254. 5);	dēvorsus, turned aside.

NOTE 1.—Here -ius (§ 234. II. 11) is added to shorter forms in -āris and -or: as, pecūliārius (from pecūliāris), bellātōrius (from bell=ator).

NOTE 2.—These adjectives are often fixed as nouns (see § 254).

Verbal Adjectives

251. Adjectives expressing the action of the verb as a quality or tendency are formed from real or apparent verb-stems with the suffixes — -āx, -idus, -ulus, -vus (-uus, -īvus, -tīvus) -āx denotes a faulty or aggressive tendency; -tīvus is oftener passive.

pūgn-āx, pugnacious;	pūgnāre, to fight.
aud-āx, bold;	audēre, to dare.
cup-idus, eager;	cupere, to desire.
bib-ulus, thirsty (as dry earth etc.);	bibere, to drink.
proter-vus, violent, wanton;	prōterere, to trample.
VERBAL ADJECTIVES noc-uus (noc-īvus), hurtful, injurious;	nocēre, to do harm.
recid-īvus, restored;	recidere, to fall back.
cap-tīvus, captive; M., a prisoner of war;	capere, to take.

NOTE.—Of these, -āx is a reduction of -ācus (stem-vowel ā- -c̆us), become independent and used with verb-stems. Similar forms in - ex, -ōx, -īx, and -ūx are found or employed in derivatives: as, imbrex, M., a rain-tile (from imber); senex, old (from seni-s); ferōx, fierce (from ferus); atrōx, savage (from āter, black); celōx, F., a yacht (cf. cellō); fēlīx, happy, originally fertile (cf. fēlō, suck); fīdūcia, F., confidence (as from †fīdūx); cf. also victrīx (from victor). So mandūcus, chewing (from mand=o).

-idus is no doubt denominative, as in herbidus, grassy (from herba, herb); tumidus, swollen (cf. tumu-lus, hill; tumul-tus, uproar); callidus, tough, cunning (cf. callum, tough flesh); mūcidus, slimy (cf. mūcus, slime); tābidus, wasting (cf. tābēs, wasting disease). But later it was used to form adjectives directly from verb-stems.

-ulus is the same suffix as in diminutives, but attached to verb-stems. Cf. aemulus, rivalling (cf. imitor and imāgō); sēdulus, sitting by, attentive (cf. domi-seda, home-staying, and sēdō, set, settle, hence calm); pendulus, hanging (cf. pondō, ablative, in weight; perpendiculum, a plummet; appendix, an addition); strāgulus, covering (cf. strāgēs); legulus, a picker (cf. sacri-legus, a picker up of things sacred).

-vus seems originally primary (cf. § 234. II. 8), but -īvus and -tīvus have become secondary and are used with nouns: as, aestīvus, of summer (from aestus, heat); tempestīvus, timely (from tempus); cf. domes-ticus (from domus).

252. Adjectives expressing passive qualities, but occasionally active, are formed by means of the suffixes —

-ilis, -bilis, -ius, -tilis (-silis)
frag-ilis, frail;	frangere (FRAG), to break.
nō-bilis, well known, famous;	nōscere (GNO), to know.
exim-ius, choice, rare (cf. ē-greg-ius);	eximere, to take out, select.
ag-ilis, active;	agere, to drive.
hab-ilis, handy;	habēre, to hold.
al-tilis, fattened (see note);	alere, to nourish.

NOTE.—Of these, -ius is primary, but is also used as secondary (cf. § 241. b. N.). -ilis is both primary (as in agilis, fragilis) and secondary (as in similis, like, cf. oμo , oμαλo , English same); -bilis is in some way related to -bulum and -brum (§ 240. N.); in -tilis and -silis, -lis is added to to- (so-), stem of the perfect participle: as, fossilis, dug up (from fossus, dug); volātilis, winged (from volātus, flight).

253. Verbal Adjectives that are Participial in meaning are formed with the suffixes — s-ndus, -bundus, -cundus
a. -ndus (the same as the gerundive ending) forms a few active or reflexive adjectives:—

secu-ndus, second (the following), favorable ;	sequī, to follow.
rotu-ndus, round (whirling)¹⁵⁶;	rotāre, to whirl.

FORMATION OF WORDS
b. -bundus, -cundus, denote a continuance of the act or quality expressed by the verb:—

vītā-bundus, avoiding;	vītāre, to shun.
treme-bundus, trembling;	tremere, to tremble.
mori-bundus, dying, at the point of death;	morīrī, to die.
fā-cundus, eloquent;	fārī, to speak.
fē-cundus, fruitful;	root F=E, nourish.
īrā-cundus, irascible;	cf. īrāscī, to be angry.

NOTE.—These must have been originally nominal: as in the series, rubus, red bush; rubidus (but no †rubicus), ruddy; Rubicōn, Red River (cf. Miniō, a river of Etruria; Minius, a river of Lusitania); rubicundus (as in averruncus, homun-culus). So turba, commotion; turbō, a top; turbidus, roily, etc. Cf. apexabō, longabō, gravēdō, dulcēdō.

c. Here belong also the participial suffixes -minus, -mnus (cf. Greek -μενo ), from which are formed a few nouns in which the participial force is still discernible:—¹⁵⁷

fē-mina, woman (the nourisher);	root F=E, nourish.
alu-mnus, a foster-child, nursling;	alere, to nourish.

Nouns with Adjective Suffixes

254. Many fixed forms of the Nominal Adjective suffixes mentioned in the preceding sections, make Nouns more or less regularly used in particular senses:— 1. -ārius, person employed about anything:—

argent-ārius, M., silversmith, broker, from argentum, silver.

Corinthi-ārius, M., worker in Corinthian bronze (sarcastic nickname of Augustus), from (aes) Corinthium, Corinthian bronze.

centōn-ārius, M., ragman, from centō, patchwork.

2. -āria, thing connected with something:—

argent-āria, F., bank, from argentum, silver.

arēn-āriae, F. plural, sandpits, from arēna, sand.

Asin-āria, F., name of a play, from asinus, ass.¹⁵⁸

3. -ārium, place of a thing (with a few of more general meaning):—

aer-ārium, N., treasury, from aes, copper.

tepid-ārium, N. , warm bath, from tepidus, warm.

sūd-ārium, N., a towel, cf. sūdō, -āre, sweat.

sal-ārium, N., salt money, salary, from sāl, salt.

calend-ārium, N., a note-book, from calendae, calends.

NOUNS WITH ADJECTIVE SUFFIXES 4. -tōria (-sōria):—

Agitā-tōria, F., a play of Plautus, The Carter, from agit=ator.

vor-sōria, F., a tack (nautical), from vorsus, a turn.

5. -tōrium (-sōrium), place of action (with a few of more general meaning):

dēvor-sōrium, N., an inn, as from dēvortō, turn aside.

audī-tōrium, N., a lecture-room, as from audiō, hear.

ten-tōrium, N., a tent, as from tendō, stretch.

tēc-tōrium, N., plaster, as from tegō, tēctus, cover.

por-tōrium, N., toll, cf. portō, carry, and portus, harbor.

6. -īle, animal-stall:—

bov-īle, N., cattle-stall, from bōs, b ovis, ox, cow.

ov-īle, N., sheepfold, from ovis, stem ovi-, sheep.

7. -al for -āle, thing connected with the primitive:—

capit-al, N., headdress, capital crime, from caput, head.

penetr-āle (especially in plural), N., inner apartment, cf. penetrō, enter.

Sāturn-ālia, N. plural (the regular form for names of festivals), feast of Saturn, from Sāturnus.

8. -ētum, N. (cf. -ātus, -ūtus, see § 246. N.), -tum, place of a thing, especially with names of trees and plants to designate where these grow:—

querc-ētum, N., oak grove, from quercus, oak.

oīv-ētum, N., olive grove, from olīva, an olive tree.

salic-tum, N., a willow thicket, from salix, a willow tree.

Argil-ētum, N., The Clay Pit, from argilla, clay.

9. -cus (sometimes with inserted i, -icus), -īcus, in any one of the genders, with various meanings:—

vīli-cus, M., a steward, vīli-ca, F., a stewardess, from vīlla, farm-house.

fabr-ica, F., a workshop, from faber, workman.

am-īcus, M., am-īca, F., friend, cf. amāre, to love.

būbul-cus, M., ox-tender, from būb-ulus, diminutive, cf. bōs, ox.

cant-icum, N., song, from cantus, act of singing.

rubr-īca, F., red paint, from ruber, red.

10. -eus, -ea, -eum, with various meanings:—

alv-eus, M., a trough, from alvus, the belly.

capr-ea, F., a wild she-goat, from caper, he-goat.

flamm-eum, N., a bridal veil, from flamma, flame, from its color.

11. -ter (stem tri-), -aster, -ester:—

eques-ter, M., knight, for †equet-ter.

sequ-ester, M., a stake-holder, from derivative of sequor, follow.

ole-aster, M., wild olive, from olea, an olive tree.

FORMATION OF WORDS

IRREGULAR DERIVATIVES

255. The suffix -ō (genitive -ōnis, stem ōn-), usually added to verb-stems (see § 236. c), is sometimes used with noun-stems to form nouns denoting possessed of. These were originally adjectives expressing quality or character, and hence often appear as proper names:—

epulae, a feast; epul-ō, a feaster.

nāsus, a nose; nās-ō, with a large nose (also as a proper name).

volus (in bene-volus), wishing; vol-ōnēs (plural), volunteers.

frōns, forehead; front-ō, big-head (also as a proper name).

cūria, a curia; cūri-ō, head of a curia (also as a proper name).

restis, a rope; resti-ō, a rope-maker.

a. Rarely suffixes are added to compound stems imagined, but not used in their compound form:—

ad-verb-ium, adverb; ad, to, and verbum, verb, but without the intervening †adverbus.

lāti-fund-ium, large estate; lātus, wide, fundus, estate, but without the intervening †lātifundus.

su-ove-taur-īlia, a sacrifice of a swine, a sheep, and a bull; sūs, swine, ovis, sheep, taurus, bull, where the primitive would be impossible in Latin, though such formations are common in Sanskrit.

DERIVATION OF VERBS

256. Verbs may be classed as Primitive or Derivative. 1. Primitive Verbs are those inherited by the Latin from the parent speech. 2. Derivative Verbs are those formed in the development of the Latin as a separate language.

257. Derivative Verbs are of two main classes:— 1. Denominative Verbs, formed from nouns or adjectives. 2. Verbs apparently derived from the stems of other verbs.

Denominative Verbs

258. Verbs were formed in Latin from almost every form of noun-stem and adjective-stem.

259. 1. Verbs of the First Conjugation are formed directly from ā-stems, regularly with a transitive meaning: as, fuga, flight; fugāre, put to flight. DENOMINATIVE VERBS 2. Many verbs of the First Conjugation are formed from o-stems, changing the o- into ā-. These are more commonly transitive:—

stimulō, -āre, to incite, from stimulus, a goad (stem stimulo-).

aequō, -āre, to make even, from aequus, even (stem aequo-).

hībernō, -āre, to pass the winter, from hībernus, of the winter (stem hīberno-).

albō, -āre, to whiten, from albus, white (stem albo-).

piō, -āre, to expiate, from pius, pure (stem pio-).

novō, -āre, to renew, from novus, new (stem novo-).

armō, -āre, to arm, from arma, arms (stem armo-).

damnō, -āre, to injure, from damnum, injury (stem damno-).

3. A few verbs, generally intransitive, are formed by analogy from consonant and i- or u-stems, adding ā to the stem:—¹⁵⁹

vigilō, -āre, to watch, from vigil, awake.

exsulō, -āre, to be in exile, from exsul, an exile.

auspicor, -ārī, to take the auspices, from auspex (stem auspic-), angur.

pulverō, -āre, to turn (anything) to dust, from pulvis (stem pulver- for pulvis-), dust.

aestuō, -āre, to surge, boil, from aestus (stem aestu-), tide, seething.

levō, -āre, to lighten, from levis (stem levi-), light.

260. A few verbs of the Second Conjugation (generally intransitive) are recognizable as formed from noun-stems; but most are inherited, or the primitive noun-stem is lost:—

albeō, -ēre, to be white, from albus (stem alb^o/_e-), white.

cāneo, -ēre, to be hoary, from cānus (stem cān^o/_e-), hoary.

clāreō, -ēre, to shine, from clārus, bright.

claudeō, -ēre, to be lame, from claudus, lame.

algeō, -ēre, to be cold, cf. algidus, cold.

261. Some verbs of the Third Conjugation in -uō, -uere, are formed from noun-stems in u- and have lost a consonant i:—

statuō (for †statu-yō), -ere, to set up, from status, position.

metuō, -ere, to fear, from metus, fear.

acuō, -ere, to sharpen, from acus, needle.

arguō, -ere, to clear up, from inherited stem †argu-, bright (cf. αρ&gammaνρo ).

NOTE.—Many verbs in u are inherited, being formed from roots in u: as, flu o, fluere, flow; so-lvō (for †sē-luō, cf. λ νω), solvere, dissolve. Some roots have a parasitic u: as, loquor, locūtus, speak.
FORMATION OF WORDS

262. Many ī-verbs or verbs of the Fourth Conjugation are formed from i-stems:—

mōlior, -īrī, to toil, from mōlēs (-is), mass.

finiō, -īre, to bound, from fīnis, end.

sitiō, -īre, to thirst, from sitis, thirst.

stabiliō, -īre, to establish, from stabilis, stable.

a. Some arise by confusion from other stems treated as i-stems:—

bulliō, -īre, to boil, from bulla (stem bullā-), bubble.

condiō, -īre, to preserve, from condus (stem condo-), storekeeper.

īnsāniō, -īre, to rave, from īnsānus (stem īnsāno-), mad.

gestiō, -īre, to show wild longing, from gestus (stem gestu-), gesture.

NOTE.—Some of this form are of doubtful origin: as, ōrdior, begin, cf. ōrdō and exōrdium. The formation is closely akin to that of verbs in -iō of the third conjugation (p. 102).

b. Some are formed with -iō from consonant stems:—

cūstōdiō, -īre, to guard, from cūstōs (stem cūstōd-), guardian.

fulguriō, -īre, to lighten, from fulgur, lightning.

NOTE.—Here probably belong the so-called desideratives in -uriō (see § 263.4. N.).

Verbs from Other Verbs

263. The following four classes of verbs regularly derived from other verbs have special meanings connected with their terminations.
NOTE.—These classes are all really denominative in their origin, but the formations had become so associated with actual verbs that new derivatives were often formed directly from verbs without the intervention of a noun-stem.
1. Inceptives or Inchoatives add -scō¹⁶⁰ to the present stem of verbs. They denote the beginning of an action and are of the Third Conjugation. Of some there is no simple verb in existence:—

calē-scō, grow warm, from caleō, be warm.

labā-scō, begin to totter, from labō, totter.

scī-scō, determine, from sciō, know.

con-cupī-scō, conceive a desire for, from cupiō, desire.

alē-scō, grow, from alō, feed.

So īrā-scor, get angry; cf. īrā-tus.

iuvenē-scō, grow young; cf. iuvenis, young man.

mītē-scō, grow mild; cf. mītis, mild.

vesperā-scit, it is getting late; cf. vesper, evening.

VERBS FROM OTHER VERBS
NOTE.—Inceptives properly have only the present stem, but many use the perfect and supine systems of simple verbs: as, calēscō, grow warm, caluī; ārdēscō, blaze forth, ārsī; proficīscor, set out, profectus.
2. Intensives or Iteratives are formed from the Supine stem and end in -tō or -itō (rarely -sō). They denote a forcible or repeated action, but this special sense often disappears. Those derived from verbs of the First Conjugation end in -itō (not -ātō).

iac-tō, hurl, from iaciō, throw.

dormī-tō, be sleepy, from dormiō, sleep.

vol-itō, flit, from volō, fly.

vēndi-tō, try to sell, from vēndō, sell.

quas-sō, shatter, from quatiō, shake.

They are of the first conjugation, and are properly denominative.
a. Compound suffixes -titō, -sitō, are formed with a few verbs. These are probably derived from other Iteratives; thus, cantitō may come from cantō, iterative of canō, sing.
b. Another form of Intensives — sometimes called Meditatives, or verbs of practice — ends in -essō (rarely -issō). These denote a certain energy or eagerness of action rather than its repetition:—

cap-essō, lay hold on, from capiō, take.

fac-essō, do (with energy), from faciō, do.

pet-esso, pet-issō, seek (eagerly), from petō, seek.

These are of the third conjugation, usually having the perfect and supine of the fourth:—

arcessō, arcess ere, arcessīvī, arcessītum, summon.

lacessō, lacess ere, lacessīvī, lacessītum, provoke.

NOTE.—The verbs in -essō, -issō, show the same formation as levāssō, impetrāssere, iūdicāssit, etc. (§ 183. 5), but its origin is not fully explained.
3. Diminutives end in -illō, and denote a feeble or petty action:—

cav-illor, jest, cf. cavilla, raillery.

cant-illō, chirp or warble, from cantō, sing.

NOTE.—Diminutives are formed from verb-stems derived from real or supposed diminutive nouns.
4. Desideratives end in -turiō (-suriō), and express longing or wishing. They are of the fourth conjugation, and only two are in common use:—

par-turiō, be in labor, from pariō, bring forth.

ē-suriō (for †ed-turiō), be hungry, from edō, eat.

Others are used by the dramatists.
NOTE.—Desideratives are probably derived from some noun of agency: as, ēmpturiō, wish to buy, from ēmptor, buyer. Vīsō, go to see, is an inherited desiderative of a different formation.
FORMATION OF WORDS

COMPOUND WORDS

264. A Compound Word is one whose stem is made up of two or more simple stems.
a. A final stem-vowel of the first member of the compound usually disappears before a vowel, and usually takes the form of i before a consonant. Only the second member receives inflection.¹⁶¹
b. Only noun-stems can be thus compounded. A preposition, however, often becomes attached to a verb.

265. New stems are formed by Composition in three ways:— 1. The second part is simply added to the first:—

su-ove-taurīlia (sūs, ovis, taurus), the sacrifice of a swine, a sheep, and a bull (cf. § 255. a).

septen-decim (septem, decem), seventeen.

2. The first part modifies the second as an adjective or adverb (Determinative Compounds):—

lāti-fundium (lātus, fundus), a large landed estate.

omni-potēns (omnis, potēns), omnipotent.

3. The first part has the force of a case, and the second a verbal force (Objective Compounds):—

agri-cola (ager, field, †cola akin to colō, cultivate), a farmer.

armi-ger (arma, arms, †ger akin to gerō, carry), armor-bearer.

corni-cen (cornū, horn, †cen akin to canō, sing), horn-blower.

carni-fex (carō, flesh, †fex akin to faciō, make), executioner.

a. Compounds of the above kinds, in which the last word is a noun, may become adjectives, meaning possessed of the quality denoted:—

āli-pēs (āla, wing, pēs, foot), wing-footed.

māgn-animus (māgnus, great, animus, soul), great-souled.

an-ceps (amb-, at both ends, caput, head), double.

NOTE.—Many compounds of the above classes appear only in the form of some further derivative, the proper compound not being found in Latin.
SYNTACTIC COMPOUNDS

Syntactic Compounds

266. In many apparent compounds, complete words — not stems — have grown together in speech. These are not strictly compounds in the etymological sense. They are called Syntactic Compounds. Examples are:—
a. Compounds of faciō, factō, with an actual or formerly existing noun-stem confounded with a verbal stem in ē-. These are causative in force:

cōnsuē-faciō, habituate (cf. cōnsuē-scō, become accustomed).

cale-faciō, cale-factō, to heat (cf. calē-scō, grow warm).

b. An adverb or noun combined with a verb:—

bene-dīcō (bene, well, dīcō, speak), to bless.

satis-faciō (satis, enough, faciō, do), to do enough (for).

c. Many apparent compounds of stems:—

fide-iubeō (fide, surety, iubeō, command), to give surety.

mān-suētus (manuī, to the hand, suētus, accustomed), tame.

Mārci-por (Mārcī puer), slave of Marcus.

Iuppiter (†Iū, old vocative, and pater), father Jove.

anim-advertō (animum advertō), attend to, punish.

d. A few phrases forced into the ordinary inflections of nouns:—

prō-cōnsul, proconsul (for prō cōnsule, instead of a consul).

trium-vir, triumvir (singular from trium virōrum).

septen-triō, the Bear, a constellation (supposed singular of septem triōnēs, the Seven Plough-Oxen).

In all these cases it is to be observed that words, not stems, are united.

267. Many syntactic compounds are formed by prefixing a Particle to some other part of speech.
a. Prepositions are often prefixed to Verbs. In these compounds the prepositions retain their original adverbial sense:—

ā, ab, AWAY: ā-mittere, to send away.

ad, TO, TOWARDS: af-ferre (ad-ferō), to bring.

ante, BEFORE: ante-ferre, to prefer; ante-cellere, to excel.

circum, AROUND: circum-mūnīre, to fortify completely.

com-, con- (cum), TOGETHER or FORCIBLY: cōn-ferre, to bring together; collocāre, to set firm.

dē, DOWN, UTTERLY: dē-spicere, despise; dē-struere, destroy.

ē, ex, OUT: ef-ferre (ec-ferō), to carry forth, uplift.

in (with verbs), IN, ON, AGAINST: īn-ferre, to bear against.

inter, BETWEEN, TO PIECES: inter-rumpere, to interrupt.

ob, TOWARDS, TO MEET: of-ferre, to offer; ob-venīre, to meet.

sub, UNDER, UP FROM UNDER: sub-struere, to build beneath; sub-dūcere, to lead up.

super, UPON, OVER AND ABOVE: super-fluere, to overflow.

FORMATION OF WORDS
NOTE 1.—In such compounds, however, the prepositions sometimes have their ordinary force as prepositions, especially ad, in, circum, trāns, and govern the case of a noun: as, trānsīre flūmen, to cross a river (see § 388. b).

NOTE 2.—Short a of the root is weakened to i before one consonant, to e before two: as, faciō, cōnficiō, cōnfectus; iaciō, ēiciō, ēiectus. But long a is retained: as, perāctus.

b. VERBS are also compounded with the following inseparable particles, which do not appear as prepositions in Latin:—

amb- (am-, an-), AROUND: amb-īre, to go about (cf. αμ&phi ι, about).

dis-, dī-, ASUNDER, APART: dis-cēdere, to depart (cf. duo, two); dī-vid ere, to divide.

por-, FORWARD: por-tendere, to hold forth, predict (cf. porrō, forth).

red-, re-, BACK, AGAIN: red-īre, to return; re-clūdere, to open (from claudō, shut); re-ficere, to repair (make again).

sēd-, sē-, APART: sē-cernō, to separate; cf. sēd-itiō, a going apart, secession (eō, īre, to go).

c. Many Verbals are found compounded with a preposition, like the verbs to which they correspond:—

per-fuga, deserter; cf. per-fugiō.

trā-dux, vine-branch; cf. trā-dūcō (trāns-dūcō).

ad-vena, stranger; cf. ad-veniō.

con-iux (con-iūnx), spouse; cf. con-iungō.

in-dex, pointer out; cf. in-dīcō.

prae-ses, guardian; cf. prae-sideō.

com-bibō, boon companion; cf. com-bibō, - ere.

d. An Adjective is sometimes modified by an adverbial prefix. 1. Of these, per- (less commonly prae-), very; sub-, somewhat; in-, not, are regular, and are very freely prefixed to adjectives:—

per-māgnus, very large.	in-nocuus, harmless.
per-paucī, very few.	in-imīcus, unfriendly.
sub-rūsticus, rather clownish.	īn-sānus, insane.
sub-fuscus, darkish.	īn-fīnītus, boundless.
prae-longus, very long.	im-pūrus, impure.

NOTE.—Per and sub, in these senses, are also prefixed to verbs: as, per-terreō, terrify; sub-rīdeō, smile. In īgnōscō, pardon, in- appears to be the negative prefix.
2. The negative in- sometimes appears in combination with an adjective that does not occur alone:—

in-ermis, unarmed (cf. arma, arms).

im-bellis, unwarlike (cf. bellum, war).

im-pūnis, without punishment (cf. poena, punishment).

in-teger, untouched, whole (cf. tangō, to touch, root TAG).

in-vītus, unwilling (probably from root seen in vī-s, thou wishest).

PART SECOND

SYNTAX

INTRODUCTORY NOTE

268. The study of formal grammar arose at a late period in the history of language, and dealt with language as a fully developed product. Accordingly the terms of Syntax correspond to the logical habits of thought and forms of expression that had grown up at such a period, and have a logical as well as a merely grammatical meaning. But a developed syntactical structure is not essential to the expression of thought. A form of words–like ō puerum pulchrum! oh! beautiful boy—expresses a thought and might even be called a sentence; though it does not logically declare anything, and does not, strictly speaking, make what is usually called a sentence at all. At a very early period of spoken language, word-forms were no doubt significant in themselves, without inflections, and constituted the whole of language,—just as to a child the name of some familiar object will stand for all he can say about it. At a somewhat later stage, such uninflected words put side by side made a rudimentary form of proposition: as a child might say fire bright; horse run. With this began the first form of logical distinction, that of Subject and Predicate; but as yet there was no distinction in form between noun and verb, and no fixed distinction in function. At a later stage forms were differentiated in function and—by various processes of composition which cannot be fully traced—Inflections were developed. These served to express person, tense, case, and other grammatical relations, and we have true Parts of Speech. Not until language reached this last stage was there any fixed limit to the association of words, or any rule prescribing the manner in which they should be combined. But gradually, by usage, particular forms came to be limited to special functions (as nouns, verbs, adjectives), and fixed customs arose of combining words into what we now call Sentences. These customs are in part the result of general laws or modes of thought (logic), resulting from our habits of mind (General Grammar); and in part are what may be called By-Laws, established by custom in a given language (Particular Grammar), and making what is called the Syntax of that language. In the fully developed methods of expression to which we are almost exclusively accustomed, the unit of expression is the Sentence: that is, the completed statement with its distinct Subject and Predicate. Originally sentences were simple. But two simple sentence-forms may be used together, without the grammatical subordination of either, to express a more complex form of thought than could be denoted by one alone. This is parataxis (arrangement side by side). Since, however, the two sentences, independent in form, were in fact used to express parts of a complex whole and were therefore mutually dependent, the sense of unity found expression in conjunctions, which denoted the grammatical subordination of the one to the other. This is hypotaxis (arrangement under, subordination). In this way, through various stages of development, which correspond to our habitual modes of thought, there were produced various forms of complex sentences. Thus, to express the complex idea I beseech you to pardon me, the two simple sentence-forms quaesō and ignōscas were used side by side, quaesō ignōscas; then the feeling of grammatical subordination found expression in a conjuuction, quaesō ut ignōscas, forming a complex sentence. The results of these processes constitute the subject-matter of Syntax. SYNTAX: THE SENTENCE

THE SENTENCE

Kinds of Sentences

269. A Sentence is a form of words which contains a Statement, a Question, an Exclamation, or a Command.
a. A Sentence in the form of a Statement is called a Declarative Sentence: as,—canis currit, the dog runs.
b. A Sentence in the form of a Question is called an Interrogative Sentence: as,—canisne currit? does the dog run?
c. A sentence in the form of an Exclamation is called an Exclamatory Sentence: as,—quam celeriter currit canis! how fast the dog runs!
d. A sentence in the form of a Command, an Exhortation, or an Entreaty is called an Imperative Sentence: as,—ī, curre per Alpīs, go, run across the Alps; currat canis, let the dog run.

Subject and Predicate

270. Every sentence consists of a Subject and a Predicate. The Subject of a sentence is the person or thing spoken of. The Predicate is that which is said of the Subject. Thus in canis currit, the dog runs, canis is the subject, and currit the predicate.

271. The Subject of a sentence is usually a Noun or Pronoun, or some word or group of words used as a Noun:—

equites ad Caesarem venerunt, the cavalry came to Caesar.

humanum est errare, to err is human.

quaeritur cum mors malum sit, the question is whether death is an evil.

a. But in Latin the subject is often implied in the termination of the verb:—

sede-mus, we sit.

curri-tis, you run.

inqui-t, says he.

272. The Predicate of a sentence may be a Verb (as in canis currit, the dog runs), or it may consist of some form of sum and a Noun or Adjective which describes or defines the subject (as in Caesar consul erat, Caesar was consul). Such a noun or adjective is called a Predicate Noun or Adjective, and the verb sum is called the Copula (i.e. the connective). Thus in the example given, Caesar is the subject, consul the predicate noun, and erat the copula (see § 283). VERB AND OBJECT

Transitive and Intransitive Verbs

273. Verbs are either Transitive or Intransitive.
1. A Transitive Verb has or requires a direct object to complete its sense (see § 274): as,—frātrem cecīdit, he slew his brother.
2. An Intransitive Verb admits of no direct object to complete its sense:—

cado, I fall (or am falling).

sol lucet, the sun shines. (or is shining).

NOTE 1.—Among transitive verbs Factitive Verbs are sometimes distinguished as a separate class. These state an act which produces the thing expressed by the word which completes their sense. Thus mensam fecit he made a table (which was not in existence before), is distinguished from mensam percussit, he struck a table (which already existed).

NOTE 2.—A transitive verb may often be used absolutely, i.e. without any object expresscd: as,—arat, he is ploughing, where the verb does not cease to be transitive because the object is left indefinite, as we see by adding,—quid, what? agrum suum, his land.

NOTE 3.—Transitive and Intransitive Verbs are often called Active and Neuter Verbs respectively.

Object

274. The person or thing immediately affected by the action of a verb is called the Direct Object. A person or thing indirectly affected by the action of a verb is called the Indirect Object. Only transitive verbs can have a Direct Object; but an Indirect Object may be used with both transitive and intransitive verbs (§§362, 366):—

pater vocat fīlium (direct object), the father calls his son.

mihi (ind. obj.) agrum (dir. obj.) ostendit, he showed me a field.

mihi (ind. obj.) placet, it is pleasing to me.

NOTE.—The distinction between transitive and intransitive verbs is not a fixed distinction, for most transitive verbs may be used intransitively, and many verbs usually intransitive may take a direct object and so become transitive (§ 388. a).

a. With certain verbs, the Genitive, Dative, or Ablative is used where the English, from a difference in meaning, requires the direct object (Objective):—

hominem videō, I see the man (Accusative).

hominī serviō, I serve the man (Dative, see § 367).

hominis misereor, I pity the man (Genitive, see § 354. a).

homine amīcō ūtor, I treat the man as a friend (Ablative, see § 410).

SYNTAX: THE SENTENCE
b. Many verbs transitive in Latin are rendered into English by an intransitive verb with a preposition:—

petit aprum, he aims at the boar.

laudem affectat, he strives efter praise.

cūrat valētūdinem, he takes care of his health.

meum cāsum doluerunt, they grieved at my misfortune.

rīdet nostram āmentiam (Quinct. 55) he laughs at our stupidity.

275. When a transitive verb is changed from the Active to the Passive voice, the Direct Object becomes the Subject and is put in the Nominative case:—

Active: pater fīlium vocat, the father calls his son.

Passive: fīlius ā patre vocatur, the son is called by his father.

Active: lūnam et stellās videmus, we see the moon and the stars.

Passive: lūna et stellae videntur, the moon and stars are seen (appear).

Modification

276. A Subject or a Predicate may be modified by a single word, or by a group of words (a phrase or a clause). The modifying word or group of words may itself be modified in the same way.
a. A Single modifying word may be an adjective, an adverb, an appositive (§ 282), or the oblique case of a noun. Thus in the sentence vir fortis patienter fert, a brave man endures patiently, the adjective fortis, brave, modifies the subject vir, man, and the adverb patienter, patiently, modifies the predicate fert, endures.
b. The modlfying word is in some cases said to limit the word to which it belongs. Thus in the sentence puerī patrem videō, I see the boy's father, the genitive puerī limits patrem (by excluding any other father).

277. A Phrase is a group of words, without subject or predicate of its own, which may be used as an Adjective or an Adverb. Thus in the sentence vir fuit summā nōbilitāte, he was a man of the highest nobility, the words summā nobilitāte, of the highest nobility, are used for the adjective nōbilis, noble (or nōbilissimus, very noble), and are called an Adjective Phrase. So in the sentence māgnā celeritāte vēnit, he came with great speed, the words māgnā celeritāte, with great speed, are used for the adverb celeriter, quickly (or celerrimē, very quickly), and are called an Adverbial Phrase. CLAUSES AND SENTENCES

Clauses and Sentences

278. Sentences are either Simple or Compound.
1. A sentence containing a single statement is called a Simple Sentence.
2. A sentence containing more than one statement is called a Compound Sentence, and each single statement in it is called a Clause.
a. If one statement is simply added to another, the clauses are said to be Coördinate. They are usually connected by a Coördinate Conjunction (§ 223. a); but this is sometimes omitted:—

dīvide et imperā, divide and control. But,— vēnī, vīdī, vīcī, I came, I saw, I conquered.

b. If one statement modifies another in any way, the modifying clause is said to be Subordinate, and the clause modified is called the Main Clause. This subordination is indicated by some connecting word, either a Subordinate Conjunction (§ 223. b) or a Relative:—

ōderint dum metuant, let them hate so long as they fear.

servum mīsit quem sēcum habēbat, he sent the slave whom he had with him.

A sentence containing one or more subordinate clauses is sometimes called Complex.
NOTE.—A subordinate clause may itself be modified by other subordinate clauses.

279. Subordinate Clauses are of various kinds.
a. A clause introduced by a Relative Pronoun or Relative Adverb is called a Relative Clause:—

Mosa prōfluit ex monte Vosegō, quī est in fīnibus Lingonum (B. G. iv. 10), the Meuse rises in the Vosges mountains, which are on the borders of the Lingones.

For Relative Pronouns (or Relative Adverbs) serving to connect independent sentences, see § 308. f.
b. A clause introduced by an Adverb of Time is called a Temporal Clause:—

cum tacent, clāmant (Cat. i. 21), while they are silent, they cry aloud.

hominēs aegrī morbō gravī, cum iactantur aestū febrīque, sī aquam gelidam biberint, prīmō relevārī videntur (id. i. 31), men suffering with a severe sickness, when they are tossing with the heat of fever, if they drink cold water, seem at first to be relieved.

SYNTAX: AGREEMENT
c. A clause containing a Condition, introduced by sī, if (or some equivalent expression), is called a Conditional Clause. A sentence containing a conditional clause is called a Conditional Sentence. Thus, sī aquam gelidam biberint, prīmō relevārī videntur (in b, above) is a Conditional Sentence, and sī … biberint is a Conditional Clause.
d. A clause expressing the Purpose of an action is called a Final Clause:—

edō ut vīvam, I eat to live (that I may live).

mīsit lēgātōs quī dīcerent, he sent ambassadors to say (who should say).

e. A clause expressing the Result of an action is called a Consecutive Clause:—¹⁶²

tam longē aberam ut nōn vidērem, I was too far away to see (so far away that I did not see).

AGREEMENT

280. A word is said to agree with another when it is required by usage to be in the same Gender, Number, Case, or Person. The following are the general forms of agreement, sometimes called the Four Concords:— 1. The agreement of the Noun in Apposition or as Predicate (§§281–284). 2. The agreement of the Adjective with its Noun (§ 286). 3. The agreement of the Relative with its Antecedent (§ 305). 4. The agreement of the Finite Verb with its Subject (§ 316).
a. A word sometimes takes the gender or number, not of the word with which it should regularly agree, but of some other word implied in that word. This use is called Synesis, or cōnstrūctiō ad sēnsum, (construction according to sense).

AGREEMENT OF NOUNS

281. A noun used to describe another, and denoting the Same person or thing, agrees with it in Case. The descriptive noun may be either an Appositive (§ 282) or a Predicate noun (§ 283). APPOSITION

Apposition

282. A noun used to describe another, and standing in the same part of the sentence with the noun described, is called an Appositive, and is said to be in apposition:—

externus timor, maximum concordiae vinculum, iungēbat animōs (Liv. ii. 39), fear of the foreigner, the chief bond of harmony, united their hearts. [Here the appositive belongs to the subject.]

quattuor hīc prīmum ōmen equōs vīdī (Aen. iii. 537), I saw here four horses, the first omen. [Here both nouns are in the predicate.]

litterās Graecās senex didicī (Cat. M. 26), I learned Greek when an old man. [Here senex, though in apposition with the subject of didicī, really states something further: viz., the time, condition, etc., of the act (Predicate Apposition).]

a. Words expressing parts may be in apposition with a word including the parts, or vice versa (Partitive Apposition):—

Nec P. Popilius neque Q. Metellus, clārissimī virī atque amplissimī, vim tribūnīciam sustinēre potuērunt (Clu. 95), neither Publius Popilius nor Quintus Metellus, [both of them] distinguished and honorable men, could withstand the power of the tribunes.

Gnaeus et Pūblius Scīpiones, Cneius and Publius Scipio (the Scipios).

b. An Adjective may be used as an appositive:—

ea Sex. Rōscium inopem recēpit (Rosc. Am. 27), she received Sextus Roscius in his poverty (needy).

c. An appositive generally agrees with its noun in Gender and Number when it can:—

sequuntur nātūram, optimam ducem (Lael. 19), they follow nature, the best guide.

omnium doctrīnārum inventrīcēs Athēnās (De Or. i. 13), Athens, discoverer of all learning.

NOTE.—But such agreement is often impossible: as,—ōlim truncus eram fīculnus, inūtile līgnum (Hor. S. i. 8. 1), I once was a fig-tree trunk, a useless log.

d. A common noun in apposition with a Locative (§ 427) is put in the Ablative, with or without the preposition in:—

Antiochīae, celebrī quondam urbe (Arch. 4), at Antioch, once a famous city.

Albae cōnstitērunt, in urbe munita (Phil. iv. 6), they halted at Alba, a fortified town.

For a Genitive in apposition with a Posessive Pronoun or an Adjective, see § 302. e. For the so-called Appositional Genitive, see § 343. d. For the construction with nōmen est, see § 373. a. SYNTAX: AGREEMENT

Predicate Noun or Adjective

283. With sum and a few other intransitive or passive verbs, a noun or an adjective describing or defining the subject may stand in the predicate. This is called a Predicate Noun or Adjective. The verb sum is especially common in this construction, and when so used is called the copula (i.e. connective). Other verbs which take a predicate noun or adjective are the so-called copulative verbs signifying to become, to be made, to be named, to appear, and the like.

284. A Predicate Noun or Adjective after the copula sum or a copulative verb is in the same case as the Subject:—

pācis semper auctor fuī (Lig. 28), I have always been an adviser of peace.

quae pertinācia quibusdam, eadem aliīs cōnstantia vidērī potest (Marc. 31), what may seem obstinacy to some, may seem to others consistency.

êius mortis sedētis ultōrēs (Mil. 79), you sit as avengers of his death.

habeātur vir ēgregius Paulus (Cat. iv. 21), let Paulus be regarded as an extraordinary man.

ego patrōnus exstitī (Rosc. Am. 5), I have come forward as an advocate.

dīcit nōn omnīs bonōs esse beatōs, he says that not all good men are happy.

a. A predicate noun referring to two or more singular nouns is in the plural:—

cōnsulēs creantur Caesar et Servīlius (B. C. iii. 1), Caesar and Servilius are elected consuls.

b. Sum in the sense of exist makes a complete predicate without a predicate noun or adjective. It is then called the substantive verb:—

sunt virī fortēs, there are (exist) brave men. [Cf. vīxere fortēs ante Agamemnona (Hor. Od. iv. 9. 25), brave men lived before Agamemnon.]

For Predicate Accusative and Predicate Ablative, see §§ 392, 415. N.

AGREEMENT OF ADJECTIVES

Attributive and Predicate Adjectives

285. Adjectives are either Attributive or Predicate.
1. An Attributive Adjective simply qualifies its noun without the intervention of a verb or participle, expressed or implied: as,—bonus imperātor, a good commander; stellae lūcidae, bright stars; verbum Graecum, a Greek word. AGREEMENT OF ADJECTIVES
2. All other adjectives are called Predicate Adjectives:—

stellae lūcidae erant, the stars were bright.

sit Scīpiō clārus (Cat. iv. 21), let Scipio be illustrious.

hominēs mītīs reddidit (Inv. i. 2), has rendered men mild.

tria praedia Capitōnī propria trāduntur (Rosc. Am. 21), three farms are handed over to Capito as his own.

cōnsilium cēpērunt plēnum sceleris (id. 28), they formed a plan full of villany.

NOTE.—A predicate adjective may be used with sum or a copulative verb (§ 283); it may have the construction of a predicate accusative after a verb of naming, calling, or the like (§ 393. N.); or it may be used in apposition like a noun (§ 282. b).

Rules of Agreement

286. Adjectives, Adjective Pronouns, and Participles agree with their nouns in Gender, Number, and Case:—

vir fortis, a brave man.

illa mulier, that woman.

urbium māgnarum, of great cities.

cum ducentīs mīlitibus, with two hundred soldiers.

imperātor victus est, the general was beaten.

secūtae sunt tempestātēs, storms followed.

NOTE.—All rules for the agreement of adjectives apply also to adjective pronouns and to participles.

a. With two or more nouns the adjective is regularly plural, but often agrees with the nearest (especially when attributive):—

Nīsus et Euryalus prīmī (Aen. v. 294), Nisus and Euryalus first.

Caesaris omnī et grātiā et opibus fruor (Fam. i. 9. 21), I enjoy all Caesar's favor and resources.

NOTE.—An adjective referring to two nouns connected by the preposition cum is occasionally plural (synesis, § 280. a): as,—Iuba cum Labieno captī (B. Afr. 52), Juba and Labienus were taken.

b. A collective noun may take an adjective of a different gender and number agreeing with the gender and number of the individuals implied (synesis, § 280. a):—

pars certāre parātī (Aen. v. 108), a part ready to contend.

colōniae aliquot dēductae, Prīscī Latīnī appellātī (Liv. i. 3), several colonies were planted (led out) [of men] called Old Latins.

multitūdō convictī sunt (Tac. Ann. xv. 44), a multitude were convicted.

māgna pars raptae (id. i. 9), a large part [of the women] were seized.

NOTE.—A superlative in the predicate rarely takes the gender of a partitive genitive by which it is limited: as,—vēlōcissimum animālium delphīnus est (Plin. N. H. ix. 20), the dolphin is the swiftest [creature] of creatures.
SYNTAX: ADJECTIVES

287. One adjective may belong in sense to two or more nouns of different genders. In such cases,—
1. An Attributive Adjective agrees with the nearest noun:—

multae operae ac laboris, of much trouble and toil.

vīta mōrēsque meī, my life and character.

sī rēs, sī vir, sī teulpus ūllum dīgnum fuit (Mil. 19), if any thing, if any man, if any time was fit.

2. A Predicate Adjective may agree with the nearest noun, if the nouns form one connected idea:—

factus est strepitus et admurmurātiō (Verr. i. 45), a noise of assent was made (noise and murmur).

NOTE.—This is only when the copula agrees with the nearest subject (§ 317. c).

3. But generally, a Predicate Adjective will be masculine, if nouns of different genders mean living beings; neuter, if things without life:—

uxor deinde ac līberī amplexī (Liv. ii. 40), then his wife and children embraced him.

labor (M.) voluptāsque (F.) societāte quādam inter sē nātūralī sunt iuncta (N.) (id. v. 4), labor and delight are bound together by a certain natural alliance.

4. If nouns of different genders include both living beings and things without life, a Predicate Adjective is sometimes masculine (or feminine), sometimes neuter, and Sometimes agrees in gender with the nearest if that is plural:—

rēx rēgiaque classis ūnā profectī (Liv. xxi. 50), the king and the royal fleet set out together.

nātūrā inimīca sunt lībera cīvitās et rēx (id. xliv. 24), by nature a free state and a king are hostile.

lēgātōs sortēsque ōrāculī exspectandās (id. v. 16), that the ambassadors and the replies of the oracle should be waited for.

a. Two or more abstract nouns of the same gender may have a Predicate Adjective in the neuter plural (cf § 289. c):—

stultitia et temeritās et iniūstitia … sunt fugienda (Fin. iii. 89), folly, rashness, and injustice are [things] to be shunned.

Adjectives used Substantively

288. Adjectives are often used as Nouns (substantively), the masculine usually to denote men or people in general of that kind, the feminine women, and the neuter things:— ADJECTIVES USED SUBSTANTIVELY

omnēs, all men (everybody).	omnia, all things (everything)
mâiōrēs, ancestors.	minōrēs, descendants.
Rōmānī, Romans	barbarī, barbarians.
līberta, a freedwoman.	Sabīnae, the Sabine women.
sapiēns, a sage (philosopher).	amīcus, a friend.
bonī, the good (good people).	bona, goods, property.

NOTE.—The plural of adjectives, pronouns, and participles is very common in this use. The singular is comparatively rare except in the neuter (§ 289. a, c) and in words that have become practically nouns.

a. Certain adjectives have become practically nouns, and are often modified by other adjectives or by the possessive genitive:—

tuus vīcīnus proximus, your next-door neighbor.

propinquī cēterī, his other relatives.

meus aequālis, a man of my own age.

êius familiāris Catilīna (Har. Resp. 6), his intimate friend Catiline.

Leptae nostrī familiārissimus (Fam. ix. 13. 2), a very close friend of our friend Lepta.

b. When ambiguity would arise from the substantive use of an adjective, a noun must be added:—

bonī, the good; omnia, everything (all things); but,—

potentia omnium rērum, power over everything.

c. Many adjectives are used substantively either in the singular or the plural, with the added meaning of some noun which is understood from constant association:—

Āfricus [ventus], the southwest wind; Iānuārius [mēnsis], January; vitulīna [carō], veal (calf's flesh); fera [bēstia], a wild beast; patria [terra], the fatherland; Gallia [terra], Gaul (the land of the Gallī); hīberna [castra], winter quarters; trirēmis [navīs], a three-banked galley, trireme; argentārius [faber], a silversmith; rēgia [domus], the palace; Latīnae [fēriae], the Latin festival.

NOTE.—These adjectives are specific in meaning, not generic like those in § 288. They include the names of winds and months (§ 31).
For Nouns used as Adjectives, see § 321. c. For Adverbs used like Adjectives, see § 321. d.

289. Neuter Adjectives are used substantively in the following special senses:—
a. The neuter singular may denote either a single object or an abstract quality:—

raptō vīvere, to live by plunder.

in aridō, on dry ground.

honestum, an honorable act, or virtue (as a quality).

opus est mātūrātō, there is need of haste. [Cf. impersonal passives, § 208. d.]

SYNTAX: ADJECTIVES
b. The neuter plural is used to signify objects in general having the quality denoted, and hence may stand for the abstract idea:—

honesta, honoroble deeds (in general).

praeterita, the past (lit., bygones).

omnēs fortia laudant, all men praise bravery (brave things).

c. A neuter adjective may be used as an appositive or predicate noun with a noun of different gender (cf. § 287. a):—

trīste lupus stabulīs (Ecl. iii. 80), the wolf [is] a grievous thing for the fold.

varium et mūtābile semper fēmina (Aen. iv. 569), woman is ever a changing and fickle thing.

malum mihi vidētur esse mors (Tusc. i. 9), death seems to me to be an evil.

d. A neuter adjective may be used as an attributive or a predicate adjective with an infinitive or a Substantive clause:—

istuc ipsum nōn esse (Tusc. i. 12), that very ``not to be.''

hūmānum est errare, to err is human.

aliud est errāre Caesarem nōlle, aliud nōlle miserērī (Lig. 16), it is one thing to be unwilling that Caesar should err, another to be unwilling that he should pity.

Adjectives with Adverbial Force

290. An adjective, agreeing with the subject or object, is often used to qualify the action of the verb, and so has the force of an adverb:—

prīmus venit, he was the first to come (came first).

nūllus dubitō, I no way doubt.

laetī audiēre, they were glad to hear.

erat Rōmae frequēns (Rosc. Am. 16), he was often at Rome.

sērus in caelum redeās (Hor. Od. i. 2. 46), mayst thou return late to heaven.

Comparatives and Superlatives

291. Besides their regular signification (as in English), the forms of comparison are used as follows:—
a. The Comparative denotes a considerable or excessive degree of a quality: as,—brevior, rather short; audācior, too bold.
b. The Superlative (of eminence) often denotes a very high degree of a quality without implying a distinct comparison: as,—mōns altissimus, a very high mountain.
NOTE.—The Superlative oi Eminence is much used in complimentary references to persons and may often be translated by the simple positive.
COMPARATIVES AND SUPERLATIVES
c. With quam, vel, or ūnus the Superlative denotes the highest possible degree:—

quam plūrimī, as many as possible.

quam maximē potest (maximē quam potest), as much as can be.

vel minimus, the very least.

vir ūnus doctissimus, the one most learned man.

NOTE 1.—A high degree of a quality is also denoted by such adverbs as admodum, valde, very, or by per or prae in composition (§ 267 d. 1): as,—valde malus, very bad=pessimus; permāgnus, very great; praealtus, very high (or deep).

NOTE 2.—A low degree of a quality is indicated by sub in composition: as,—subrūsticus, rather clownish, or by minus, not very; minimē, not at all; parum, not enough, nōn satīs, not much.

NOTE 3.—The comparative mâiōres (for mâiōres nātū, greater by birth) has the special signification of ancestors; so minōres often means descendants.
For the Superlative with quisque, see § 313. b. For the construction of a substantive after a Comparative, see §§ 406, 407; for that of a clause, see § 535. c, 571. a. For the Ablative of Degree of Difference with a Comparative (multō, etc.), see §414.

292. When two qualities of an object are compared, both adjectives are in the Comparative:—

longior quam latior acies erat (Liv. xxvii. 48), the line was longer than it was broad (or, rather long than broad).

vērior quam grātior (id. xxii. 38), more true than agreeable.

NOTE.—So also with adverbs: as,—libentius quam vērius (Mil. 78), with more freedom than truth.

a. Where magis is used, both adjectives are in the positive:—

disertus magis quam sapiēns (Att. x. 1. 4), eloquent rather than wise.

clārī magis quam honestī (Iug. 8), more renowned than honorable.

NOTE.—A comparative and a positive, or even two positives, are sometimes connected by quam. This use is rarer and less elegant than those before noticed:—

clārīs mâiōribus quam vetustīs (Tac. Ann. iv. 61), of a family more famous than old.

vehementius quam cautē (Tac. Agr. 4), with more fury than good heed.

293. Superlatives (and more rarely Comparatives) denoting order and succession—also medius, ceterus, reliquus—usually designate not what object, but what part of it, is meant:—

summus mōns, the top of the hill.

in ultimā plateā, at the end of the place.

prior āctiō, the earlier part of an action.

reliqui captīvī, the rest of the prisoners.

in colle mediō (B. G. i. 24), half way up the hill (on the middle of the hill).

inter cēteram plānitiem (Iug. 92), in a region elsewhere level.

NOTE.—A similar use is found in sērā (multā) nocte, late at night, and the like. But medium viae, the middle of the way; multum diēī, much of the day, also occur.
SYNTAX: PRONOUNS

PRONOUNS

294. A Pronoun indicates some person or thing without either naming or describing it. Pronouns are derived from a distinct class of roots, which seem to have denoted only ideas of place and direction (§228. 2), and from which nouns or verbs can very rarely be formed. They may therefore stand for Nouns when the person or thing, being already present to the senses or imagination, needs only to be pointed out, not named. Some pronouns indicate the object in itself, without reference to its class, and have no distinction of gender. These are Personal Pronouns. They stand syntactically for Nouns, and have the same construction as nouns. Other pronouns designate a particular object of a class, and take the gender of the individuals of that class. These are called Adjective Pronouns. They stand for Adjectives, and have the same construction as adjectives. Others are used in both ways; and, though called adjective pronouns, may also be treated as personal, taking, however, the gender of the object indicated. In accordance with their meanings and uses, Pronouns are classified as follows:—

Personal Pronouns (§ 290).	Interrogative Pronouns (§ 333).
Demonstrative Pronouns (§ 296).	Relative Pronouns (§ 303).
Reflexive Pronouns (§ 299).	Indefinite Pronouns (§ 309).
Possessive Pronouns (§ 302).

Personal Pronouns

295. The Personal Pronouns have, in general, the same constructions as nouns.
a. The personal pronouns are not expressed as subjects, except for distinction or emphasis:—

tē vocō, I call you. But,—

quis mē vocat? ego tē vocō, who is calling me? I (emphatic) am calling you.

b. The personal pronouns have two forms for the genitive plural, that in -um being used partitively (§ 346), and that in -ī oftenest objectively (§ 348):—

mâior vestrum, the elder of you.

habētis ducem memorem vestrī, oblītum suī (Cat. iv. 19), you have a leader who thinks (is mindful) of you and forgets (is forgetful of) himself.

pars nostrum, a part (i.e. some) of us.

NOTE 1.—The genitives nostrum, vestrum, are occasionally used objectively (§ 348): as,—cupidus vestrum (Verr. iii. 224), fond of you; custōs vestrum (Cat. iii. 29), the guardian of you (your guardian).

NOTE 2.—``One of themselves'' is expressed by ūnus ex suīs or ipsīs (rarely ex sē) or ūnus suōrum.

c. The Latin has no personal pronouns of the third person except the reflexive sē. The want is supplied by a Demonstrative or Relative (§§ 296. 2, 308.f). DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS

Demonstrative Pronouns

296. Demonstrative Pronouns are used either adjectively or substantively. 1. As adjectives, they follow the rules for the agreement of adjectives and are called Adjective Pronouns or Pronominal Adjectives (§§ 286, 287):—

hōc proeliō factō, after this battle was fought (this battle having been fought).

eōdem proeliō, in the same battle.

ex eīs aedificiīs, out of those buildings.

2. As substantives, they are equivalent to personal pronouns. This use is regular in the oblique cases, especially of is:–

Caesar et exercitus êius, Caesar and his army (not suus). [But, Caesar exercitum suum dīmīsit, Caesar disbanded his [own] army.]

sī obsidēs ab eīs dentur (B. G. i. 14), if hostages should be given by them (persons just spoken of).

hī sunt extrā prōvinciam trāns Rhodanum prīmī (id. i. 10), they (those just mentioned) are the first [inhabitants] across the Rhone.

ille minimum propter adulēscentiam poterat (id. i. 20), he (emphatic) had very little power, on account of his youth.

a. An adjective pronoun usually agrees with an appositive or predicate noun, if there be one, rather than with the word to which it refers (cf. § 306):—

hīc locus est ūnus quō perfugiant; hīc portus, haec arx, haec āra sociōrum (Verr. v. 126), this is the only place to which they can flee for refuge; this is the haven, this the citadel, this the altar of the allies.

rērum caput hōc erat, hīc fons (Hor. Ep. i. 17. 45), this was the head of things, this the source.

eam sapientiam interpretantur quam adhūc mortālis nēmō est cōnsecūtus [for id … quod] (Lael. 18), they explain that [thing] to be wisdom which no man ever yet attained.

297. The main uses of hīc, ille, iste, and is are the following:—
a. Hīc is used of what is near the speaker (in time, place, or thought). It is hence called the demonstrative of the first person. It is sometimes used of the speaker himself; sometimes for ``the latter'' of two persons or things mentioned in speech or writing; more rarely for ``the former,'' when that, though more remote on the written page, is nearer the speaker in time, place, or thought. Often it refers to that which has just been mentioned. SYNTAX: PRONOUNS
b. Ille is used of what is remote (in time, etc.); and is hence called the demonstrative of the third person. It is sometimes used to mean ``the former''; also (usually following its noun) of what is famous or well-known; often (especially the neuter illud) to mean ``the following.''
c. Iste is used of what is between the two others in remoteness: often in allusion to the person addressed,—hence called the demonstrative of the second person. It especially refers to one's opponent (in court, etc.), and frequently implies antagonism or contempt.
d. Is is a weaker demonstrative than the others and is especially common as a personal pronoun. It does not denote any special object, but refers to one just mentioned, or to be afterwards explained by a relative. Often it is merely a correlative to the relative quī:—

vēnit mihi obviam tuus puer, is mihi litterās abs tē reddidit (Att. ii. 1. 1), your boy met me, he delivered to me a letter from you.

eum quem, one whom.

eum cōnsulem quī nōn dubitet (Cat. iv. 24), a consul who will not hesitate.

e. The pronouns hīc, ille, and is are used to point in either direction, back to something just mentioned or forward to something about to be mentioned. The neuter forms often refer to a clause, phrase, or idea:—

est illud quidem vel maximum, animum videre (Tusc. i. 62), that is in truth a very great thing,—to see the soul.

f. The demonstratives are sometimes used as pronouns of reference, to indicate with emphasis a noun or phrase just mentioned:—

nūllam virtūs aliam mercēdem dēsīderat praeter hanc laudis (Arch. 28), virtue wants no other reward except that [just mentioned] of praise.

NOTE.—But the ordinary English use of that of is hardly known in Latin. Commonly the genitive construction is continued without a pronoun, or some other construction is preferred:—

cum eī Simonides artem memoriae pollicērētur: oblīviōnis, inquit, mallem (Fin. ii. 104), when Simonides promised him the art of memory, ``I should prefer,'' said he, ``[that] of forgetfulness.''

Caesaris exercitus Pompêiānōs ad Pharsālum vīcit, the army of Caesar defeated that of Pompey (the Pompeians) at Pharsalus.

298. The main uses of īdem and ipse are as follows:—
a. When a quality or act is ascribed with emphasis to a person or thing already named, is or īdem (often with the concessive quidem) is used to indicate that person or thing:— DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS

per ūnum servum et eum ex gladiatōriō lūdō (Att. i. 16. 5), by means of a single slave, and that too one from the gladiatorial school.

vincula, et ea sempiterna (Cat. iv. 7), imprisonment, and that perpetual.

Ti. Gracchus rēgnum occupāre cōnātus est, vel rēgnāvit is quidem paucōs mensīs (Lael. 41), Tiberius Gracchus tried to usurp royal power, or rather he actually reigned a few months.

NOTE.—So rarely with ille: as,—nunc dextra ingeminans ictus, nunc ille sinistra (Aen. v. 457), now dealing redoubled blows with his right hand, now (he) with his left. [In imitation of the Homeric ό̔ γε: cf. Aen. v. 334; ix. 796.]

b. Īdem, the same, is often used where the English requires an adverb or adverbial phrase (also, too, yet, at the same time):—

ōrātiō splendida et grandis et eadem in prīmīs facēta (Brut. 273), an oration, brilliant, able, and very witty too.

cum [haec] dīcat, negat īdem esse in Deō grātiam (N. D. i. 121), when he says this, he denies also that there is mercy with God (he, the same man).

NOTE.—This is really the same use as in a above, but in this case the pronoun cannot be represented by a pronoun iu English.

c. The intensive ipse, self, is used with any of the other pronouns, with a noun, or with a temporal adverb for the sake of emphasis:—

turpe mihi ipsī vidēbātur (Phil. i. 9), even to me (to me myself) it seemed disgraceful.

id ipsum, that very thing; quod ipsum, which of itself alone.

in eum ipsum locum, to that very place.

tum ipsum (Off. ii. 60), at that very time.

NOTE 1.—The emphasis of ipse is often expressed in English by just, very, mere, etc.

NOTE 2.—In English, the pronouns himself etc. are used both intensively (as, he will come himself) and reflexively (as, he will kill himself): in Latin the former would be translated by ipse, the latter by se or sese.

d. Ipse is often used alone, substantively, as follows:— 1. As an emphatic pronoun of the third person:—

idque reī pūblicae praeclārum, ipsīs glōriōsum (Phil. ii. 27), and this was splendid for the state, glorious for themselves.

omnēs bonī quantum in ipsīs fuit (id. ii. 29), all good men so far as was in their power (in themselves).

dī capitī ipsīus generīque reservent (Aen. viii. 484), may the gods hold in reserve [such a fate] to fall on his own and his son-in-law's head.

2. To emphasize an omitted subject of the first or second person:—

vobīscum ipsī recordāminī (Phil. ii. 1), remember in your own minds (yourselves with yourselves).

3. To distinguish the principal personage from subordinate persons:—

ipse dīxit (cf. αὐτὸς έ̓φα), he (the Master) said it.

Nōmentānus erat super ipsum (Hor. S. ii. 8. 23), Nomentanus was above [the host] himself [at table].

SYNTAX: PRONOUNS
e. Ipse is often (is rarely) used instead of a reflexive (see § 300. b).
f. Ipse usually agrees with the subject, even when the real emphasis in English is on a refiexive in the predicate:—

mē ipse cōnsōlor (Lael. 10), I console myself. [Not mē ipsum, as the English would lead us to expect.]

Reflexive Pronouns

299. The Reflexive Pronoun (sē), and usually its corresponding possessive (suus), are used in the predicate to refer to the subject of the sentence or clause:—

sē ex nāvī prōiēcit (B. G. iv. 25), he threw himself from the ship.

Dumnorīgem ad sē vocat (id. i. 20), he calls Dumnorix to him.

sēsē castrīs tenēbant (id. iii. 24), they kept themselves in camp.

contemnī sē putant (Cat. M. 65), they think they are despised.

Caesar suās cōpiās subducit (B. G. i. 22), Caesar leads up his troops.

Caesar statuit sibi Rhēnum esse trānseundum (id. iv. 16), Caesar decided that he must cross the Rhine (the Rhine must be crossed by himself).

a. For reflexives of the first and second persons the oblique cases of the personal pronouns (meī, tuī, etc.) and the corresponding possessives (meus, tuus, etc.) are used:—

mortī mē obtulī (Mil. 94), I have exposed myself to death.

hinc tē rēgīnae ad līmina perfer (Aen. i. 389), do you go (bear yourself) hence to the queen's threshold.

quid est quod tantīs nōs in labōribus exerceāmus (Arch. 28), what reason is there why we should exert ourselves in so great toils?

singulīs vōbīs novēnōs ex turmīs manipulīsque vestrī similēs ēligite (Liv. xxi, 54), for each of you pick out from the squadrons and maniples nine like yourselves.

300. In a subordinate clause of a complex sentence there is a double use of Reflexives. 1. The reflexive may always be used to refer to the Subject of its own clause (Direct Reflexive):—

iūdicārī potest quantum habeat in sē bonī cōnstantia (B. G. i. 40), it can be determined how much good firmness possesses (has in itself).

[Caesar] nōluit eum locum vacāre, nē Germānī ē suīs fīnibus trānsīrent (id, i. 28), Caesar did not wish this place to lie vacant, for fear the Germans would cross over from their territories.

sī qua sīgnificātiō virtūtis ēlūceat ad quam sē similis animus adplicet at adiungat (Lael. 48), if any sign of virtue shine forth to which a similar disposition may attach itself.

REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS 2. If the Subordinate clause expresses the words or thought of the subject of the main clause, the reflexive is regularly used to refer to that Subject (Indirect Reflexive):—

petiērunt ut sibi licēret (B. G. i. 30), they begged that it might be allowed them (the petitioners).

Iccius nūntium mittit, nisi subsidium sibi submittātur (id. ii. 6), Iccius sends a message that unless relief be furnished him, etc.

decima legiō eī grātiās ēgit, quod dē sē optimum iūdicium fēcisset (id. i. 41). the tenth legion thanked him because [they said] he had expressed a high opinion of them.

sī obsidēs ab eīs (the Helvetians) sibi (Caesar, who is the speaker) dentur, sē (Caesar) cum eīs pācem esse factūrum (id. i. 14), [Caesar said that] if hostages were given him by them he would make peace with them.

NOTE.—Sometimes the person or thing to which the reflexive refers is not the grammatical subject of the main clause, though it is in effect the subject of discourse: Thus,—cum ipsī deō nihil minus grātum futūrum sit quam nōn omnibus patēre ad sē plācandum viam (Legg. ii. 25), since to God himself nothing will be less pleasing then that the way to appease him should not be open to all men.

a. If the subordinate clause does not express the words or thought of the main subject, the reflexive is not regularly used, though it is occasionally found:—

sunt ita multī ut eōs carcer capere nōn possit (Cat. ii. 22), they are so many that the prison cannot hold them. [Here se could not be used; so also in the example following.]

ibi in proximīs vīllīs ita bipartītō fuērunt, ut Tiberis inter eos et pōns interesset (id. iii. 5), there they stationed themselves in the nearest farmhouses, in two divisions, in such a manner that the Tiber and the bridge were between them (the divisions).

nōn fuit eō contentus quod eī praeter spem acciderat (Manil. 25), he was not content with that which had happened to him beyond his hope.

Compare: quī fit, Maecēnās, ut nēmō, quam sibi sortem seu ratiō dederit seu fors obiēcerit, illā contentus vīvat (Hor. S. i. 1. 1), how comes it, Maecenas, that nobody lives contented with that lot which choice has assigned him or chance has thrown in his way? [Here sibi is used to put the thought into the mind of the discontented man.]

b. Ipse is often (is rarely) used instead of an indirect reflexive, either to avoid ambiguity or from carelessness; and in later writers is sometimes found instead of the direct reflexive:—

cūr dē suā virtūte aut dē ipsīus dīligentiā dēspērārent (B. G. i. 40), why (he asked) should they despair of their own courage or his diligence?

omnia aut ipsōs aut hostēs populātōs (Q. C. iii. 5. 6), [they said that] either they themselves or the enemy had laid all waste. [Direct reflexive.]

SYNTAX: PRONOUNS

quī sē ex hīs, minus timidōs exīstimārī volēbant, nōn sē hostem verērī, sed angustiās, itineris et māgnitūdinem silvārum quae intercēderent inter ipsōs (the persons referred to by sē above) atque Ariovistum … timēre dīcēbant (B. G. i. 39), those of them who wished to be thought less timid said they did not fear the enemy, but were afraid of the narrows and the vast extent of the forests which were between themselves and Ariovistus.

audīstis nūper dīcere lēgātōs Tyndaritānōs Mercurium quī sacrīs anniversariīs apud eōs colerētur esse sublātum (Verr. iv. 84), you have just heard the ambassadors from Tyndaris say that the statue of Mercury which was worshipped with annual rites among them was taken away. [Here Cicero wavers between apud eōs colēbātur, a remark of his own, and apud sē colerētur, the words of the ambassadors. eos does not strictly refer to the ambassadors, but to the people–the Tyndaritani.]

301. Special uses of the Reflexive are the following:—
a. The reflexive in a Subordinate clause sometimes refers to the subject of a suppressed main clause:—

Paetus omnīs librōs quōs frāter suus relīquisset mihi dōnāvit (Att. ii. 1), Paetus gave me all the books which (as he said in the act of donation) his brother had left him.

b. The reflexive may refer to any noun or pronoun in its own clause which is so emphasized as to become the subject of discourse:—

Sōcratem cīvēs suī interfēcērunt, Socrates was put to death by his own fellow-citizens.

quī poterat salūs sua cuiquam nōn probārī (Mil. 81), how can any one fail to approve his own safety? [In this and the preceding example the emphasis is preserved in English by the change of voice.]

hunc sī secutī erunt suī comitēs (Cat. ii. 10), this man, if his companions follow him.

NOTE.—Occasionally the clause to which the reflexive really belongs is absorbed: as,—studeō sānāre sibi ipsōs (Cat. ii. 17), I am anxious to cure these men for their own benefit (i.e. ut sānī sibi sint).

c. Suus is used for one's own as emphatically opposed to that of others, in any part of the Sentence and with reference to any word in it:—

suīs flammīs dēlēte Fīdēnās (Liv. iv. 33), destroy Fidenae with its own fires (the fires kindled by that city, figuratively). [Cf. Cat. i. 32.]

d. The reflexive may depend upon a verbal noun or adjective:—

suī laus, self-praise.

habētis, ducem memorem vestrī, oblītum suī (Cat. iv. 19), you have a leader mindful of you, forgetful of himself.

perditī hominēs cum suī similibus servīs (Phil. i. 5), abandoned men with slaves like themselves.

POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS
e. The reflexive may refer to the Subject implied in an infinitive or verbal abstract used indefinitely:—

contentum suīs rēbus esse maximae sunt dīvitiae (Par. 51), the greatest wealth is to be content with one's own.

cui prōposita sit cōnservātiō suī (Fin. v. 37), one whose aim is self-preservation.

f. Inter sē (nōs, vōs), among themselves (ourselves, yourselves), is regularly used to express reciprocal action or relation:—

inter sē cōnflīgunt (Cat. i. 26), contend with each other.

inter sē continentur (Arch. 2), are joined to each other.

Possessive Pronouns

302. The Possessive Pronouns are derivative adjectives, which take the gender, number, and case of the noun to which they belong, not those of the possessor:—

haec ōrnāmenta sunt mea (Val. iv. 4), these are my jewels. [mea is neuter plural, though the speaker is a woman.]

meī sunt ōrdinēs, mea dīscrīptiō (Cat. M. 59), mine are the rows, mine the arrangement. [mea is feminine, though the speaker is Cyrus.]

multa in nostrō collēgiō praeclāra (id. 64), [there are] many fine things in our college. [nostro is neuter singular, though men are referred to.]

Germānī suās cōpiās castrīs ēdūxērunt (B. G. i. 51), the Germans led their troops out of the camp.

a. To express possession and similar ideas the possessive pronouns are regularly used, not the genitive of the personal or reflexive pronouns (§ 343. a):—

domus mea, my house. [Not domus mei.]

pater noster, our father. [Not pater nostri.]

patrimōnium tuum, your inheritance. [Not tui.]

NOTE 1.—Exceptions are rare in classic Latin, common in later writers. For the use of a possessive pronoun instead of an Objective Genitive, see § 348. a.

NOTE 2.—The Interrogative Possessive cûius -a, -um, occurs in poetry and early Latin: as,—cûium pecus (Ecl. iii. 1), whose flock? The genitive cûius is generally used instead.

b. The possessives have often the acquired meaning of peculiar to, favorable or propitious towards, the person or thing spoken of:—

[petere] ut suā clēmentiā ac mānsuētūdine ūtātur (B. G. ii. 14), they asked (they said) that he would show his [wonted] clemency and humanity.

īgnōrantī quem portum petat nūllus suus ventus est (Sen. Ep. 71. 3), to him who knows not what port he is bound to, no wind is fair (his own).

tempore tuō pūgnāstī (Liv. xxxviii. 45. 10), did you fight at a fit time?

NOTE.—This use is merely a natural development of the meaning of the possessive, and the pronoun may often be rendered literally.
SYNTAX: PRONOUNS
c. The possessives are regularly omitted (like other pronouns) when they are plainly implied in the context:—

socium fraudāvit, he cheated his partner. [socium suum would be distinctive, his partner (and not another's); suum socium, emphatic, his own partner.]

d. Possessive pronouns and adjectives implying possession are often used substantively to denote some special class or relation:—

nostrī, our countrymen, or men of our party.

suōs continēbat (B. G. i. 16), he held his men in check.

flamma extrēma meōrum (Aen. ii. 431), last flames of any countrymen.

Sullānī, the veterans of Sulla's army; Pompêiānī, the partisans of Pompey.

NOTE.—There is no reason to suppose an ellipsis here. The adjective becomes a noun like other adjectives (see § 288).

e. A possessive pronoun or an adjective implying possession may take an appositive in the genitive case agreeing in gender, number, and case with an implied noun or pronoun:—

meā sōlīus causā (Ter. Haut. 129), for my sake only.

in nostrō omnium flētū (Mil. 92), amid the tears of us all.

ex Anniānā Milōnis domō (Att. iv. 3. .3), out of Annius Milo's house. [Equivalent to ex Annī Milōnis domō.]

nostra omnium patria, the country of us all.

suum ipsīus rēgnum, his own kingdom.

For the special reflexive use of the possessive suus, see §§ 299, 300.

Relative Pronouns

303. A Relative Pronoun agrees with some word expressed or implied either in its own clause, or (often the antecedent (demonstrative) clause. In the fullest construction the alltecedent is expressed in both clauses, with more commonly a corresponding demonstrative to which the relative refers: as,—iter in ea loca facere coepit, quibus in locīs esse Germānōs audiēbat (B. G. iv. 7), he began to march into those PLACES in which PLACES he heard the Germans were. But one of these nouns is commonly omitted. The antecedent is in Latin very frequently (rarely in English) found in the relative clause, but more commonly in the antecedent clause. Thus relatives serve two uses at the same time:—
1. As Nouns (or Adjectives) in their own clause: as,—eī quī Alesiae obsīdēbantur (B. G. vii. 77), those who were besiesled at Alesia.
2. As Connectives: as,—T. Balventius, quī superiōre annō prīmum pīlum dūxerat (id. v. 35), Titus Balventius, who the year before had been a centurion of the first rank. When the antecedent is in a different sentence, the relative is often equivalent to a demonstrative with a conjunction: as,—quae cum ita sint (=et cum ea ita sint), [and] since this is so. The subordinating force did not belong to the relative originally, but was developed from an interrogative or indefinite meaning specialized by use. But the subordinating and the later connective force were acquired by quī at such au early period that the steps of the process cannot now be traced. RELATIVE PRONOUNS

304. A Relative Pronoun indicates a relation between its own clause and some substantive. This substantive is called the Antecedent of the relative. Thus, in the Sentence—

eum nihil dēlectābat quod fās esset (Mil. 43), nothing pleased him which was right,

the relative quod connects its antecedent nihil with the predicate fas esset, indicating a relation between the two.

305. A Relative agrees with its Antecedent in Gender and Number; but its Case depends on its construction in the clause in which it stands:—

ea diēs quam cōnstituerat vēnit (B. G. i. 8), that day which he had appointed came.

pontem quī erat ad Genāvam iubet rescindī (id. i. 7), he orders the bridge which was near Geneva to be cut down.

Aduatucī, dē quibus suprā dīximus, domum revertērunt (id. ii. 29), the Aduatuci, of whom we have spoken above, returned home.

NOTE.—This rule applies to all relative words so far as they are variable in form: as, quālis, quarltus, quīcumque, etc.

a. If a relative has two or more antecedents, it follows the rules for the agreement of predicate adjectives (§§ 286, 287):—

fīlium et fīliam, quōs valdē dīlēxit, unō tempore āmīsit, he lost at the same time a son and a daughter whom he dearly loved.

grandēs nātū mātrēs et parvulī līberī, quōrum utrōrumque aetās misericordiam nostram requīrit (Verr. v. 129), aged matrons and little children, whose time of life in each case demands our compassion.

ōtium atque dīvitiae, quae prīma mortālēs putant (Sall. Cat. 36), idleness and wealth, which men count the first (objects of desire).

eae frūgēs et frūctūs quōs terra gignit (N. D. ii. 37), those fruits and crops which the earth produces.

For the Person of the verb agreeing with the relative, see § 316. a.

306. A Relative generally agrees in gender and number with appositive or predicate noun in its own clause rather than with an antecedent of different gender or number (cf. § 296. a):—

mare etiam quem Neptūnum esse dīcēbās (N. D. iii. 52), the sea, too, which you said was Neptune. [Not quod.]

Thēbae ipsae, quod Boeōtiae caput est (Liv. xlii. 44), even Thebes, which is the chief city of Boeotia. [Not quae.]

NOTE.—This rule is occasionally violated: as,—flūmen quod appellatur Tamesis (B. G. v. 11), a river which is called the Thames.
SYNTAX: PRONOUNS
a. A relative occasionally agrees with its antecedent in case (by attraction):—

sī aliquid agās eōrum quōrum cōnsuēstī (Fam. v. 14), if you should do something of what you are used to do. [For eōrum quae.]

NOTE.—Occasionally the antecedent is attracied into the case of the relative:—

urbem quam statuō vestra est (Aen. i. 573), the city which I am founding is yours.

Naucratem, quem convenīre voluī, in navī nōn erat (Pl. Am. 1009), Naucrates, whom I wished to meet, was not on board the ship.

b. A relative may agree in gender and number with an implied antecedent:—

quārtum genus … quī in vetere aere aliēnō vacillant (Cat. ii. 21), a fourth class, who are staggering under old debts.

ūnus ex eō numerō quī parātī eraut (Iug. 35), one of the number [of those] who were ready.

coniūrāvēre paucī, dē quā [i.e. coniuratione] dicam (Sall. Cat. 18), a few have conspired, of which [conspiracy] I will speak.

NOTE.—So regularly when the antecedent is implied in a possessive pronoun: as,—nostra ācta, quōs tyrannōs vocās (Vat. 29), the deeds of us, whom you call tyrants. [Here quōs agrees with the nostrum (genitive plural) implied in nostra.]

Antecedent of the ReLative

307. The Antecedent Noun sometimes appears in both clauses; but usually only in the one that precedes. Sometimes it is wholly omitted.
a. The antecedent noun may be repeated in the relative clause:— locī nātūra erat haec quem locum nostrī dēlēgerant (B. G. ii. 18), the nature of the ground which our men had chosen was this.
b. The antecedent noun may appear only in the relative clause, agreeing with the relative in case:—

quās rēs in cōnsulātū nostrō gessimus attigit hīc versibus (Arch. 28), he has touched in verse the things which I did in my consulship.

quae prīma innocentis mihi dēfēnsiō est oblāta suscēpī (Sull. 92), I undertook the first defence of an innocent man that was offered me.

NOTE.—In this case the relative clause usually comes first (cf. §308. d) and a demonstrative usually stands in the antecedent clause:—

quae pars cīvitātis calamitātem populō Rōmānō intulerat, ea prīnceps poenās persolvit (B. G. i. 12), that part of the state which had brought disaster on the Roman people was the first to pay the penalty.

quae grātia currum fuit vīvis, eadem sequitur (Aen. vi. 653), the same pleasure that they took in chariots in their lifetime follows them (after death).

quī fit ut nēmō, quam sibi sortem ratiō dederit, illā contentus vīvat (cf. Hor. S. i. 1. 1), how does it happen that no one lives contented with the lot which choice has assigned him?

RELATIVE PRONOUNS
c. The antecedent may be omitted, especially if it is indefinite:—

quī decimae legiōnis aquilam ferēbat (B. G. iv. 25), [the man] who bore the eagle of the tenth legion.

quī cōgnōscerent mīsit (id. i. 21), he sent [men] to reconnoitre.

d. The phrase id quod or quae rēs may be used (instead of quod alone) to refer to a group of words or an idea:—

[obtrectātum est] Gabīniō dīcam anne Pompêiō? an utrīque—id quod est verius? (Manil. 67), an affront has been offered—shall I say to Gabinius or to Pompey? or—which is truer—to both?

multum sunt in vēnātiōnibus, quae res vīrēs alit (B. G. iv. 1), they spend much time in hunting, which [practice] increases their strength.

NOTE.—But quod alone often occurs: as,—Cassius noster, quod mihi māgnae voluptāti fuit, hostem rêiēcerat (Fam. ii. 10), our friend Cassius—which was a great satisfaction to me—had driven back the enemy.

e. The antecedent noun, when in apposition with the main clause, or with some word of it, is put in the relative clause:—

fīrmī [amīcī], cûius generis est māgna pēnūria (Lael. 62), steadfast friends, a class of which there is great lack (of which class there is, etc.).

f. A predicate adjective (especially a superlative) belonging to the antecedent may stand in the relative clause:—

vāsa ea quae pulcherrima apud eum vīderat (Verr. iv. 63), those most beautiful vessels which he had seen at his house. [Nearly equivalent to the vessels of which he had seen some very beautiful ones.]

Special Uses of the Relative

308. In the use of Relatives, the following points are to be observed:—
a. The relative is never omitted in Latin, as it often is in English:—

liber quem mihi dedistī, the book you gave me.

is sum quī semper fuī, I am the same man I always was.

eō in locō est dē quō tibi locūtus sum, he is in the place I told you of.

b. When two relative clauses are connected by a copulative conjunction, a relative pronoun sometimes stands in the first and a demonstrative in the last:—

erat profectus obviam legiōnibus Macedonicīs quattuor, quas sibi conciliāre pecūniā cōgitābat eāsque ad urbem addūcere (Fam. xii. 23. 2), he had set out to meet four legions from Macedonia, which he thought to win over to himself by a gift of money and to lead (them) to the city.

SYNTAX: PRONOUNS
c. A relative clause in Latin often takes the place of some other construction in English,—particularly of a participle, an appositive, or a noun of agency:—

lēgēs quae nunc sunt, the existing laws (the laws which now exist).

Caesar quī Galliam vīcit, Caesar the conqueror of Gaul.

iūsta glōria quī est frūctus virtūtis (Pison. 57), true glory [which is] the fruit of virtue.

ille quī petit, the plaintiff (he who sues).

quī legit, a reader (one who reads).

d. In formal or emphatic discourse, the relative clause usually comes first, often containing the antecedent noun (cf. § 307. b):—

quae pars cīvitātis Helvētiae īnsīgnem calamitātem populō Rōmānō intulerat, ea prīnceps poenās persolvit (B. G. i. 12), the portion of the Helvetian state which had brought a serious disaster on the Roman people was the first to pay the penalty.

NOTE.—In eolloquial language, the relative clause in such cases often contains a redundant demonstrative pronoun which logically belongs in the antecedent clause: as,—ille quī cōnsultē cavet, diūtinē utī bene licet partum bene (Plaut. Rud. 1240) he who is on his guard, he may long enjoy what he has well obtained.

e. The relative with an abstract noun may be used in a parenthetical clause to characterize a person, like the English such:—

quae vestra prūdentia est (Cael. 46), such is your wisdom. [Equivalent to prō vestrā prūdentiā.]

audīssēs cōmoedōs vel lēctōrem vel lyristēn, vel, quae mea līberālitās, omnēs (Plin. Ep. i. 15), you would have listened to comedians, or a reader, or a lyre-player, or—such is my liberality—to all of them.

f. A relative pronoun (or adverb) often stands at the beginning of an independent sentence or clause, serving to connect it with the sentence or clause that precedes:—

Caesar statuit exspectandam classem; quae ubi convenit (B. G. iii. 14), Caesar decided that he must wait for the fleet; and when this had come together, etc.

quae quī audiēbant, and those who heard this (which things).

quae cum ita sint, and since this is so.

quōrum quod simile factum (Cat. iv. 13), what deed of theirs like this?

quō cum vēnisset, and when he had come there (whither when he had come).

NOTE.—This arrangement is common even when another relative or an interrogative follows. The relative may usually be translated by an English demonstrative, with or without and.

g. A relative adverb is regularly used in referring to an antecedent in the Locative case; so, often, to express any relation of place instead of the formal relative pronoun:— INDEFINITE PRONOUNS

mortuus Cūmīs quō sē contulerat (Liv. ii. 21), having died at Cumae, whither he had retired. [Here in quam urbem might be used, but not in quās.]

locus quō aditus nōn erat, a place to which (whither) there was no access.

rēgna unde genus dūcis (Aen. v. 801), the kingdom from which you derive your race.

unde petitur, the defendant (he from whom something is demanded).

h. The relatives quī, quālis, quantus, quot, etc. are often rendered simply by as in English:—

idem quod semper, the same as always.

cum esset tālis quālem tē esse vīdeō (Mur. 32), since he was such a man as I see you are.

tanta dīmicātiō quanta numquam fuit (Att. vii. 1. 2), such a fight as never was before.

tot mala quot sīdera (Ov. Tr. i. 5. 47), as many troubles as stars in the sky.

i. The general construction of relatives is found in clauses introduced by relative adverbs: as, ubi, quō, unde, cum, quārē.

Indefinite Pronouns

309. The Indefinite Pronouns are used to indicate that some person or thing is meant, without designating what one.

310. Quis, quispiam, aliquis, quīdam, are particular indefinites, meaning some, a certain, any. Of these, quis, any one, is least definite, and quīdam, a certain one, most definite; aliquis and quispiam, some one, stand between the two:—

dīerit quis (quispiam), some one may say.

aliquī philosophī ita putant, some philosophers think so. [quidam would mean certain persons defined to the speaker's mind, though not named.]

habitant hīc quaedam mulierēs pauperculae (Ter. Ad. 647), some poor women live here [i.e. some women he knows of; some women or other would be aliquae or nesciō quae].

a. The indefinite quis is rare except in the combinations sī quis, if any; nisi quis, if any … not; nē quis, lest any, in order that none; num quis (ecquis), whether any; and in relative clauses.
b. The compounds quispiam and aliquis are often used instead of quis after sī, nisi, nē, and num, and are rather more emphatic:—

quid sī hōc quispiam voluit deus (Ter. Eun. 875), what if some god had desired this?

nisi alicui suōrum negōtium daret (Nep. Dion. 8. 2), unless he should employ some one of his friends.

cavēbat Pompêius omnia, nē aliquid vōs timērētis (Mil. 66), Pompey took every precaution, so that you might have no fear.

SYNTAX: PRONOUNS

311. In a particular negative aliquis (aliquī), some one (some), is regularly used, where in a universal negative quisquam, any one, or ullus, any, would be required:—

iūstitia numquam nocet cuiquam (Fin. i. 50), justice never does harm to anybody. [alicui would mean to somebody who possesses it.]

nōn sine aliquō metū, not without some fear. But,—sine ūllō metū, without any fear.

cum aliquid nōn habeās (Tusc. i. 88), when there is something you have not.

NOTE.—The same distinction holds between quis and aliquis on the one hand, and quisquam (ullus) on the other, in conditional and other sentences when a negative is expressed or suggested:—

sī quisquam, ille sapiēns fuit (Lael. 9), if any man was (ever) a sage, he was.

dum praesidia ūlla fuērunt (Rosc. Am. 126), while there were any armed forces.

sī quid in tē peccāvī (Att. iii. 15. 4), if I have done wrong towards you [in any particular case (see § 310)].

312. Quīvīs or quīlibet (any one you will), quisquam, and the corresponding adjective ullus, any at all, are general indefinites. Quīvīs and quīlibet are used chiefly in affirmative clauses, quisquam and ullus in clauses where a universal negative is expressed or suggested:—

nōn cuivīs hominī contingit adīre Corinthum (Hor. Ep. i. 17. 36), it is not every man's luck to go to Corinth. [nōn cuiquam would mean not any man's.]

quemlibet modo aliquem (Acad. ii. 132), anybody you will, provided it be somebody.

sī quisquam est timidus, is ego sum (Fam. vi. 14.1), if any man is timorous, I am he.

sī tempus est ūllum iūre hominis necandī (Mil. 9), if there is any occasion whatever when homicide is justifiable.

NOTE.—The use of the indefinites is very various, and must be learned from the Lexicon and from practice. The choice among them may depend merely on the point of view of the speaker, so that they are often practically interchangeable. The differences are (with few exceptions) those of logic, not of syntax.

313. The distributives quisque (every), uterque (each of two), and ūnus quisque (every single one) are used in general assertions:—

bonus liber melior est quisque quō mâior (Plin. Ep. i. 20. 4), the larger a good book is, the better (each good book is better in proportion, etc.).

ambō exercitūs suās quisque abeunt domōs (Liv. ii. 7. 1), both armies go away, every man to his home.

uterque utrīque erat exercitus in cōnspectū (B. G. vii. 35), each army was in sight of the other (each to each).

pōnite ante oculōs ūnum quemque rēgum (Par. i. 11), set before your eyes each of the kings.

INDEFINITE PRONOUNS
a. Quisque regularly stands in a dependent clause, if there is one:—

quō quisque est sollertior, hōc docet īrācundius (Rosc. Com. 31), the keener-witted a man is, the more impatiently he teaches.

NOTE.—Quisque is generally postpositive:¹⁶³ as, suum cuique, to every man his own.

b. Quisque is idiomatically used with Superlatives and with ordinal numerals:—

nōbilissimus quisque, all the noblest (one after the other in the order of their nobility).¹⁶⁴

prīmō quōque tempore (Rosc. Am. 36), at the very first opportunity.

antīquissimum quodque tempus (B. G. i. 45), the most ancient times.

decimus quisque (id. v. 52), one in ten.

NOTE 1.—Two superlatives with quisque imply a proportion: as,—sapientissimus quisque aequissimō animō moritur (Cat. M. 83), the wisest men die with the greatest equanimity.

NOTE 2.—Quotus quisque has the signification of how many, pray? often in a disparaging sense (how few):—

quotus enim quisque disertus? quotus quisque iūris perītus est (Planc. 62), for how few are eloquent! how few are learned in the law!

quotus enim istud quisque fēcisset (Lig. 26), for how many would have done this? [i.e. scarcely anybody would have done it].

314. Nemo, no one, is used of persons only—
1. As a Substantive:—

nēminem accūsat, he accuses no one.

2. As an adjective pronoun instead of nūllus:—

vir nēmō bonus (Legg. ii. 41), no good man.

NOTE.—Even when used as a substantive, nēmō may take a noun in apposition: as,—nēmō scrīptor, nobody [who is] a writer.

a. Nūllus, no, is commonly an adjective; but in the genitive and ablative singular it is regularly used instead of the corresponding cases of nēmō, and in the plural it may be either an adjective or a substantive:—

nūllum mittitur tēlum (B. C. ii. 13), not a missile is thrown.

nūllō hoste prohibente (B. G. iii. 6), without opposition from the enemy.

nūllīus īnsector calamitātem (Phil. ii. 98), I persecute the misfortune of no one.

nūllo adiuvante (id. x. 4), with the help of no one (no one helping).

nūllī erant praedōnēs (Flacc. 28), there were no pirates.

nūllī eximentur (Pison. 94), none shall be taken away.

For nōn nemō, nōn nullus (nōn nūllī) see § 326. a. SYNTAX: PRONOUNS

Alius and Alter

315. Alius means simply other, another (of an indefinite number); alter, the other (of two), often the second in a series; cēterī and reliquī, all the rest, the others; alteruter, one of the two:—

proptereā quod aliud iter habērent nūllum (B. G. i. 7), because (as they said) they had no other way.

ūnī epistulae respondī, veniō ad alteram (Fam. ii. 17. 6), one letter I have answered, I come to the other.

alterum genus (Cat. ii. 19), the second class.

iēcissem ipse mē potius in profundum ut cēterōs cōnservārem (Sest. 45), I should have rather thrown myself into the deep to save the rest.

Servīlius cōnsul, reliquīque magistratūs (B. C. iii. 21), Servilius the consul and the rest of the magistrates.

cum sit necesse alterum utrum vincere (Fam. vi. 3), since it must be that one of the two should prevail.

NOTE.—Alter is often used, especially with negatives, in reference to an indefinite number where one is opposed to all the rest taken singly:—

dum nē sit tē dītior alter (Hor. S. i. 1. 40), so long as another is not richer than you (lit. the other, there being at the moment only two persons considered).

nōn ut magis alter, amīcus (id. i. 5. 33), a friend such that no other is more so.

a. The expressions alter … alter, the one … the other, alius … alius, one … another, may be used in pairs to denote either division of a group or reciprocity of action:—

alterī dīmicant, alterī victōrem timent (Fam. vi. 3), one party fights, the other fears the victor.

alteram alterī praesidiō esse iusserat (B. C. iii 89), he had ordered each (of the two legions) to support the other.

aliī gladiīs adoriuntur, aliī fragmentīs saeptōrum (Sest. 79), some make an attack with swords, others with fragments of the railings.

alius ex aliō causam quaerit (B. G. vi. 37), they ask each other the reason.

alius alium percontāmur (Pl. Stich. 370), we keep asking each other.

b. Alius and alter are often used to express one as well as another (the other) of the objects referred to:—

alter cōnsulum, one of the [two] consuls.

aliud est maledīcere, aliud accūsāre (Cael. 6), it is one thing to slander, another to accuse.

c. Alius repeated in another case, or with an adverb from the same stem, expresses briefly a double statement:—

alius aliud petit, one man seeks one thing, another another (another seeks another thing).

iussit aliōs alibī fodere (Liv. xliv. 33), he ordered different persons to dig in different places.

aliī aliō locō resistēbant (B. C. ii. 39), some halted in one place, some in another.

VERB AND SUBJECT

VERBS

Agreement of Verb and Subject

316. A Finite Verb agrees with its Subject in Number and Person:—

ego statuo, I resolve.

senatus decrevit, the senate ordered.

silent leges inter arma (Mil. 11), the laws are dumb in time of war.

NOTE.—In verb-forms containing a participle, the participle agrees with the subject in gender and number (§ 286):—

oratia est habita, the plea was delivered.

bellum exortum est, a war arose.

a. A verb having a relative as its subject takes the person of the expressed or implied antecedent:—

adsum qui feci (Aen. ix. 427), here am I who did it.

tu, qui scis, omnem diligentiam adhibebis (Att. v. 2. 3), you, who know, will use all diligence.

videte quam despiciemur omnes qui sumus e municipiis (Phil. iii. 15), see how all of us are scorned who are from the free towns.

b. A verb sometimes agrees in number (and a participle in the verb-form in number and gender) with an appositive or predicate noun:—

amantium irae amoris integratio est (Ter. And. 655), the quarrels of love are the renewal of love.

nōn omnis error stultitia dicenda est (Div. ii. 90), not every error should be called folly.

Corinthus lumen Graeciae exstinctum est (cf. Manil. 11), Corinth, the light of Greece, is put out.

Double or Collective Subject

317. Two or more singular subjects take a verb in the Plural:

pater et avus mortui sunt, his father and grandfather are dead.

NOTE.—So rarely (by synesis, § 280. a) when to a singular subject is attached an ablative with cum: as,—dum cum aliquot principibus capiuntur (Liv. XVI. 60), the general and several leading men are taken.

a. When subjects are of different persons, the verb is usually in the first person rather than the second, and in the second rather than the third:—

sī tu et Tullia valetis ego et Cicero valemus (Fam. xiv. 5), if you and Tullia are well, Cicero and I are well. [Notice that the first person is also first in order, not last, as by courtesy in English.]

NOTE.—In case of different genders a participle in a verb-form follows the rule for predicate adjectives (see § 287. 2 4).
SYNTAX: VERBS
b. If the subjects are connected by disjunctives (§223. a), or if they are considered as a single whole, the verb is usually singular:—

quem ueque fides ueque ius iurandum neque illum misericordia repressit (Ter. Ad. 306), not faith, nor oath, nay, nor mercy, checked him.

senatus populusque Romanus intellegit (Fam. v. 8), the Roman senate and people understand. [But, neque Caesar neque ego habiti essemus (id. xi. 20), neither Caesar nor I should have been considered.]

fama et vlta innocentis defenditur (Rosc. Am. 10), the reputation and life of an innocent man are defended.

est in eo virtus et probitas et summum officium summaque observantia (Fam. xiii. 28 A. 2), in him are to be found worth, uprightness, the highest sense of duty, and the greatest devotion.

NOTE.—So almost always when the subjects are abstract nouns.

c. When a verb belongs to two or more subjects separately, it often agrees with one and is understood with the others:—

intercedit M. Antonius Q. Cassius tribum plebis (B. C. i. 2) Mark Antony and Quintus Cassius, tribunes of the people, interpose.

hoc mihi et Peripatetici et vetus Academia concedit (Acad. ii. 113), this both the Peripatetic philosophers and the Old Academy grant me.

d. A collective noun commonly takes a verb in the singular; but, the plural is often found with collective nouns when individuals are thought of (§ 280. a):—

(1) senatus haec intellegit (Cat. i. 2),the Senate is aware of this.

ad hiberna exercitus redit (Liv. xxi. 22), the army returns to winter-quarters.

plebes a patribus secessit (Sall.Cat.33), the plebs seceded from the patricians.

(2) pars praedas agebant (Iug. 32), a part brought in booty.

cum tanta multitado lapides conicerent (B. G. ii. 6), when such a crowd were throwing stones.

NOTE 1.—The point of view may change in the course of a sentence: as,—equitatum omnem … quem habebat praemittit, qui videant (B. G. i. 15), he sent ahead all the cavalry he had, to see (who should see).

NOTE 2.—The singular of a noun regularly denoting an individual is sometimes used collectively to denote a group: as, Poenus, the Carthaginians; miles, the soldiery; eques, the cavalry.

e. Quisque, each, and unus quisque, every single one, have very often a plural verb, but may be considered as in partitive apposition with a plural subject implied (cf. § 282. a):—

sibi quisque habeant quod suum est (Pl. Curc. 180), let every one keep his own (let them keep every man his own).

NOTE.—So also uterque, each (of two), and the reciprocal phrases alius … alium, alter … alterum (§315. a).
OMISSION OF SUBJECT OR VERB

Omission of Subject or Verb

318. The Subject of the Verb is sometimes omitted:—
a. A Personal pronoun, as Subject, is usually omitted unless emphatic:—

loquor, I speak.

But, ego loquor, it is I that speak.

b. An indefinite subject is often omitted:—crederes, you would have supposed; putamus, we (people) think; dicunt, ferunt, perhibent, they say.
c. A passive verb is often used impersonally without a subject expressed or understood (§ 208. d):—

diu atque acriter pugnatum est (B. G. i. 26), they fought long and rigorously.

319. The verb is sometimes omitted:—
a. Dīco, facio, ago, and other common verbs are often omitted in familiar phrases:—

quorsum haec [spectant], what does this aim at?

ex ungue leonem [cognosces], you will know a lion by his claw.

quid multa, what need of many words? (why should I say much?)

quid? quod, what of this, that …? (what shall I say of this, that . . .?) [A form of transition . ]

Aeolus haec contra (Aen. i. 76), Aeolus thus [spoke] in reply.

tum Cotta [inquit], then said Cotta.

di meliora [duint]! (Cat. M. 47), Heaven forfend (may the gods grant better things)!

unde [venis] et quo [tendis]? (Hor. S. ii. 4. 1), where from and whither bound? [Cf. id. i. 9. 62 for the full form.]

b. The copula sum is very commonly omitted in the present indicative and present infinitive, rarely (except by late authors) in the subjunctive:—

tu coniunx (Aen. iv. 113), you [are] his wife.

quid ergo? audacissimus ego ex omnibus (Rosc. Am. 2), what then? am I the boldest of all?

omnia praeclara rara (Lael. 79), all the best things are rare.

potest incidere saepe contentio et comparatio de duobus honeshs utrum honestius (Off. i. 152), there may often occur a comparison of two honorable actions, as to which is the more honorable. [Here, if any copula were expressed, it would be sit, but the direct question would be complete without any.]

accipe quae peragenda prius (Aen. vi. 136), hear what is first to be accomplished. [Direct: quae peragenda prius ?]

SYNTAX: PARTICLES

PARTICLES

Adverbs

320. The proper function of Adverbs, as petrified case-forms, is to modify Verbs: as,—celenter ire, to go with speed. It is from this use that they derive their name (adverbium, from ad, to, and verbum, verb; see § 241. b). They also modify adjectives, showing in what manner or degree the quality described is manifested: as, splendide mendax, gloriously false. More rarely they modify othsr adverbs: as, nimis graviter, too severely. Many adverbs, especially relative adverbs, serve as connectives, and are hardly to be distinguished from conjunctions (see §20. g. N.).¹⁶⁵

321. Adverbs are used to modify Verbs, Adjectives, and other Adverbs.
a. A Demonstrative or Relative adverb is often equivalent to the corresponding Pronoun with a preposition (see § 308. g):—

eo [ īn ea] imponit vasa (Iug. 75), upon them (thither, thereon, on the beasts) he puts the camp-utensils.

eo milites imponere (B. G. i. 42), to put soldiers upon them (the horses).

apud eos quo [ ād quos] se contulit (Verr. iv. 38), among those to whom (whither) he resorted.

qui eum necasset unde [ q̄uo] ipse natus esset (Rosc. Am. 71), one who should have killed his own father (him whence he had his birth).

o condiciones miseras administraudarum provinciarum ubi [ īn quibus] severitas periculosa est (Flacc. 87), O! wretched terms of managing the provinces, where strictness is dangerous.

b. The participles dictum and factum, when used as nouns, are regularly modified by adverbs rather than by adjectives; so occasionally other perfect participles:—

praeclare facta (Nep. Timoth. 1), glorious deeds (things gloriously done).

multa facete dicta (Off. i. 104), many witty sayings.

c. A noun is sometimes used as an adjective, and may then be modified by an adverb:—

victor exercitus, the victorious army.

admodum puer, quite a boy (young).

magis vir, more of a man (more manly).

populum late regem (Aen. i. 21), a people ruling far and wide.

NOTE.—Very rarely adverbs are used with nouns which have no adjective force but which contain a verbal idea:—

hinc abitis (Plaut. Rud. 503), a going away from here.

quid cogitem de obviam itione (Att. xiii. 50), what I think about going to meet (him). [Perhaps felt as a compound.]

ADVERBS
d. A few adverbs appear to be used like adjectives. Such are obviam, palam, sometimes contra, and occasionally others:—

fit obviam Clodio (Mil. 29), he falls in with (becomes in the way of) Clodius. [Cf. the adjective obvius: as,—s=i ille obvius el futurus n=on erat (id. 47), if he was not likely to fall in with him.]

haec commemoro quae sunt palam (Pison. Il), I mention these facts, which are well-known.

alia probabilia, contra alia dicimus (Off. ii. 7), we call some things probable, others the opposite (not probable). [In this use, contra contradicts a previous adjective, and so in a manner repeats it.]

eri semper lenitas (Ter. And. 176), my master's constant (always) gentleness. [An imitation of a Greek construction.]

NOTE.—In some cases one can hardly say whether the adverb is treated as an adjective modifying the noun, or the noun modified is treated as an adjective (as in c above). For propius, pridie, palam, and other adverbs used as prepositions, see § 432.

322. The following adverbs require special notice:
a. Etiam (et iam), also, even, is stronger than quoque, also, and usually precedes the emphatic word, while quoque follows it:—

nōn verbis solum sed etiam vi (Verr. ii. 64), not only by words, but also by force.

hoc quoque maleficium (Rosc. Am. 117), this crime too.

b. Nunc¹⁶⁶ means definitely now, in the immediate present, and is rarely used of the immediate past. Iam means now, already, at length, presently, and includes a reference to previous time through which the state of things described has been or will be reached. It may be used of any time. With negatives iam means (no) longer. Tum, then, is correlative to cum, when, and may be used of any time. Tunc, then, at that time, is a strengthened form of tum (†tum-ce, cf. nunc):—

ut iam antea dixi, as I have already said before.

sī iam satis aetatis atque roboris haberet (Rosc. Am. 149), if he had attained a suitable age and strength (lit. if he now had, as he will have by and by).

nōn est iam lenitati locus, there is no longer room for mercy.

quod iam erat institutum, which had come to be a practice (had now been established).

nunc quidem deleta est, tunc florebat (Lael. 13), now ('t is true) she [Greece] is ruined, then she was in her glory.

tum eum regnabat, at the time when he reigned.

SYNTAX: PARTICLES
c. Certo means certainly, certe (usually) at least, at any rate:—

certo scio, I know for a certainty;

ego certe, I at least.

d. Primum means first (first in order; or for the first time), and implies a series of events or acts. Primo means at first, as opposed to afterwards, giving prominence merely to the difference of time:—

hoc primum sentio, this I told in the first place.

aedis primo ruere rebamur, at first we thouht the house was falling.

NOTE.—In enumerations, primum (or primo) is often followed by deinde, secondly, in the next place or by tum, then, or by both in succession. Deinde may be several times repeated (secondly, thirdly, etc.). The series is often closed by denique or postremo, lastly, finally. Thus,—primum de gellere belli, deinde de magnitudine, tum de imperatore deligendo (Manil. 6) first of the kind of war, next of its magnitude, then of the choice of a commamder.

e. Quidem, indeed, gives emphasis, and often has a concessive meaning, especially when followed by sed, autem, etc.:—

hoc quidem videre licet (Lael. 54), THIS surely one may see. [Emphatic.]

[securitas] specie quidem blanda, sed reapse multis locis repudianda (id. 47), (tranquillity) in appearance 't is true attractive but in reality to be rejected for many reasons. [Concessive.]

f. NĒ … quidem means not even or not . . . either. The emphatic word or words must stand between n=e and quidem:—

sed nē Iugurtha quidem quietus erat (Iug. 51), but Jugurtha was not quiet either.

ego autem nē irasci possum quidem iis quos valde amo (Att. ii. 19. 1), but I cannot even get angry with those whom I love very much.

NOTE.—Equidem has the same senses as quidem, but is in Cicero confined to the first person. Thus,—equidem adprobabo (Fam. ii. 3. 2) If or my part shall approve.

CONJUNCTIONS

¹⁶⁷

323. Copulative and Disjunctive Conjunctions connect similar constructions, and are regularly followed by the same case or mood that precedes them:—

scriptum senatum et populo (Cat. iii. 10), written to the senate and people.

ut eas [partis] sanares et confirmares (Mil. 68), that you might cure and strengthen those parts.

neque mea prudentia neque humanis consiliis fretus (Cat. ii. 29), relying neither on my own foresight nor on human wisdom.

CONJUNCTIONS
a. Conjunctions of Comparison (as ut, quam, tamquam, quasi) also commonly connect similar constructions:—

his igitur quam physicīs potius crēdendum exīstimās (Div. ii. 3,), do you think these are more to be trusted than the natural philosophers?

hominem calidiōrem vīdī nēminem quam Phormiōnem (Ter. Ph. 591), a shrewder man I never saw than Phormio (cf. §407.)

ut nōn omne vīnum sīc nōn omnis nātūra vetustāte coacēscit (Cat. M. 65), as every wine does not sour with age, so [does] not every nature.

in mē quasi in tyrannum (Phil. xiv. 15), against me as against a tyrant.

b. Two or more coordinate words, phrases, or sentences are often put together without the use of conjunctions (Asyndeton, §601. c):

omnēs dī, hominēs, all gods and men.

summī, mediī, īnfimī, the highest, the middle class, and the lowest.

iūra, lēgēs, agrōs, lībertātem nōbīs relīquērunt (B. G. vii. 77), they have left us our rights, our laws, our fields, our liberty.

c. 1. Where there are more than two coördinate words etc., a conjunction, if used, is ordinarily used with all (or all except the first):—

aut aere aliēnō aut māgnitūdine tribūtōrum aut iniūriā potentiōrum (B. G. vi. 13), by debt, excessive taxation, or oppression on the part of the powerful.

at sunt mōrōsī et anxiī et īrācundī et difficilēs senēs (Cat. M. 65), but (you say) old men are capricious, solicitous, choleric, and fussy.

2. But words are often so divided into groups that the members of the groups omit the conjunction (or express it), while the groups themselves express the conjunction (or omit it):—

propudium illud et portentum, L. Antōnius īnsīgne odium omnium hominum (Phil. xiv. 8), that wretch and monster, Lucius Antonius, the abomination of all men.

utrumque ēgit graviter, auctōritāte et offēnsiōne animī nōn acerbā (Lael. 77), he acted in both cases with dignity, without loss of authority and with no bitterness of feeling.

3. The enclitic -que is sometimes used with the last member of a series, even when there is no grouping apparent:—

vōce voltū mōtūque (Brut. 110), by voice, expression, and gesture.

cūram cōnsilium vigilantiamque (Phil. vii. 20), care, wisdom, and vigilance.

quōrum auctōritātem dīgnitātem voluntātemque dēfenderās (Fam. i. 7. 2), whose dignity, honor, and wishes you had defended.

d. Two adjectives belonging to the same noun are regularly connected by a conjunction:—

multae et gravēs causae, many weighty reasons.

vir līber ac fortis (Rep. ii. 34), a free and brave man.

SYNTAX: PARTICLES
e. Often the same conjunction is repeated in two coordinate clases:

et … et (-que . . . -que), both… and,.

aut… aut, either…or.

vel … vel, either … or. [Examples in §324. e.]

sīve (seu) … sīve (seu), whether … or. [Examples in § 324.f.]

f. Many adverbs are similarly used in pairs, as conjunctions, partly or wholly losing their adverbial force:—

nunc … nunc, tum…tum, iam … iam, now… now.

modo… modo, now… now.

simul … simul, at the same time … at the same time.

quā … quā, now … now, both . . and, alike [this] and [that].

modo ait modo negat (Ter. Eun. 714), now he says yes, now no.

simul grātiās agit, simul grātulātur (Q. C. vi. 7. 15), he thanks him and at the same time congratulates him.

ērumpunt saepe vitia amīcōrum tum in ipsōs amīcōs tum in alienōs (Lael. 76), the faults of friends sometimes break out, now against their friends themselves, now against strangers.

quā marīs quā fēminās (Pl. Mil. 1113), both males and females.

g. Certain relative and demonstrative adverbs are used correlatively as conjunctions:—

ut (rel.) … ita, sīc (dem.), as (while) … so (yet).

tam (dem.) … quam (rel.), so (as) … as.

cum (rel.) … tum (dem.), while … so also; not only…. but also.

324. The following Conjunctions require notice:—
a. Et, and, simply connects words or clauses; -que combines more closely into one connected whole. -que is always enclitic to the word connected or to the first or second of two or more words connected:

cum coniugibus et līberīs, with [their] wives and children.

ferrō īgnīque, with fire and sword. [Not as separate things, but as the combined means of devastation.]

aquā et īgnī interdictus, forbidden the use of water and fire. [In a legal formula, where they are considered separately.]

b. Atque (ac), and, adds with some emphasis or with some implied reflection on the word added. Hence it is often equivalent to and so, and yet, and besides, and then. But these distinctions depend very much upon the feeling of the speaker, and are often untranslatable:—

omnia honesta atque inhonesta, everything honorable and dishonorable (too, without the slightest distinction).

ūsus atque discīplina, practice and theory beside (the more important or less expected).

atque ego crēdō, and yet I believe (for my part).

CONJUNCTIONS
c. Atque (ac), in the sense of as, than, is also used after words of comparison and likeness:—

simul atque, as soon as.

nōn secus (nōn aliter) ac sī, not otherwise than if.

pro eō ac debuī, as was my duty (in accordance as I ought).

aequē ac tū, as much as you.

haud minus ac iussī faciunt, they do just as they are ordered.

For and not, see § 328. a.
d. Sed and the more emphatic vērum or vērō, but, are used to introduce something in opposition to what precedes, especially after negatives (not this . . . but something else). At (old form ast) introduces with emphasis a new point in an argument, but is also used like the others; sometimes it means at least. At enim is almost always used to introduce a supposed objection which is presently to be overthrown. At is more rarely used alone in this sense. Autem, however, now, is the weakest of the adversatives, and often marks a mere transition and has hardly any adversative force perceptible. Atque, however, now, sometimes introduces an objection and sometimes a fresh step in the reasoning. Quod sī, but if, and if, now if, is used to continue an argument.
NOTE.—Et, -que, and atque (ac) are sometimes used where the English idiom would suggest but, especially when a negative clause is followed by an affirmative clause continuing the same thought: as,—impetum hostēs ferre nōn potuērunt ac terga vertērunt (B. G. iv. 35), the enemy could not stand the onset, but turned their backs.

e. Aut, or, excludes the alternative; vel (an old imperative of volō) and -ve give a choice between two alternatives. But this distinction is not always observed:—

sed quis ego sum aut quae est in mē facultās (Lael. 17), but who am I or what special capacity have I? [Here vel could not be used, because in fact a negative is implied and both alternatives are excluded.]

Aut bibat aut abeat (Tusc. v. 118), let him drink or (if he won't do that, then let him) quit. [Here vel would mean, let him do either as he chooses.]

vīta tālis fuit vel fortūnā vel glōriā (Lael. 12), his life was such either in respect to fortune or fame (whichever way you look at it).

sī propinquōs habeant imbēcilliōrēs vel animō vel fortūnā (id. 70), if they have relatives beneath them either in spirit or in fortune (in either respect, for example, or in both).

aut deōrum aut rēgum fīliī (id. 70), sons either of gods or of kings. [Here one case would exclude the other.]

implicātī vel usu diūturnō vel etiam officiīs (id. 85), entangled either by close intimacy or even by obligations. [Here the second case might exclude the first.]

SYNTAX: THE SENTENCE
f. Sīve (seu) is properly used in disjunctive conditions (if either . . . or if), but also with alternative words and clauses, especially with two names for the same thing:—

sīve inrīdēns sīve quod ita putāret (De Or. i. 91), either laughingly or because he really thought so.

sīve deae seu sint volucrēs (Aen. iii. 262), whether they (the Harpies) are goddesses or birds.

g. Vel, even, for instance, is often used as an intensive particle with no alternative force: as,—vel minimus, the very least.
h. Nam and namque, for, usually introduce a real reason, formally expressed, for a previous statement; enim (always postpositive), a less important explanatory circumstance put in by the way; etenim (for, you see; for, you know; for, mind you) and its negative neque enim introduce something self-evident or needing no proof.

(ea vīta) quae est sōla vīta nōminanda. nam dum sumus inclūsī in hīs compāgibus corporis, mūnere quōdam necessitātis et gravī opere perfungimur; est enim animus caelestis, etc. (Cat. M. 77), (that life) which alone deserves to be called life; for so long as we are confined by the body's frame, we perform a sort of necessary function and heavy task. For the soul is from heaven.

hārum trium sententiārum nūllī prōrsus adsentior, nec enim illa prīma vēra est (Lael. 57), for of course that first one isn't true.

i. Ergō, therefore, is used of things proved formally, but often has a weakened force. Igitur, then, accordingly, is weaker than ergō and is used in passing from one stage of an argument to another. Itaque, therefore, accordingly, and so, is used in proofs or inferences from the nature of things rather than in formal logical proof. All of these are often used merely to resume a train of thought broken by a digression or parenthesis. Idcircō, for this reason, on this account, is regularly followed (or preceded) by a correlative (as, quia, quod, sī, ut, nē), and refers to the special point introduced by the correlative.

malum mihi vidētur esse mors. est miserum igitur, quoniam malum, certē, ergō et eī quibus ēvēnit iam ut morerentur et eī quibus ēventūrum est miserī mihi ita vidētur. nēmō ergō nōn miser. (Tusc. i. 9.) Death seems to me to be an evil. `It is wretched, then, since it is an evil.' Certainly. `Therefore, all those who have already died and who are to die hereafter are wretched.' So it appears to me. `There is no one, therefore, who is not wretched.'

quia nātūra mūtārī nōn potest, idcircō vērae amīcitiae sempiternae sunt (Lael. 32), because nature cannot be changed, for this reason true friendships are eternal.

NEGATIVE PARTICLES
j. Autem, enim, and vērō are postpositive¹⁶⁸; so generally igitur and often tamen.
k. Two conjunctions of similar meaning are often used together for the sake of emphasis or to bind a sentence more closely to what precedes: as, at vērō, but in truth, but surely, still, however; itaque ergō, accordingly then; namque, for; et-enim, for, you see, for of course (§ 324. h). For Conjunctions introducing Subordinate Clauses, see Syntax.

Negative Particles¹⁶⁹

325. In the use of the Negative Particles, the following points are to be observed:—

326. Two negatives are equivalent to an affirmative:—

nēmō nōn audiet, every one will hear (nobody will not hear).

nōn possum nōn cōnfitērī (Fam. ix. 14. 1), I must confess.

ut…nē nōn timēre quidem sine aliquō timōre possīmus (Mil. 2), so that we cannot even be relieved of fear without some fear.

a. Many compounds or phrases of which nōn is the first part express an indefinite affirmative:—

nōn nūllus, some; nōn nūlli ( āliquī), some few.

nōn nihil ( āliquid), something.

nōn nēmō ( āliquot), sundry persons.

nōn numquam ( āliquotiēns), sometimes.

b. Two negatives of which the second is nōn (belonging to the predicate) express a universal affirmative:—

nēmō nōn, nūllus nōn, nobody [does] not, i.e. everybody [does]. [Cf. nōn nēmō, not nobody, i.e. somebody.]

nihil nōn, everything. [Cf. nōn nihil, something.]

numquam nōn, never not, i.e. always. [Cf. nōn numquam, sometimes.]

c. A statement is often made emphatic by denying its contrary (Litotes, § 641):—

nōn semel ( s̄aepissimē), often enough (not once only).

nōn haec sine nūmine dīvom ēveniunt (Aen. ii. 777), these things do not occur without the will of the gods.

haec nōn nimis exquīrō (Att. vii. 18. 3), not very much, i.e. very little.

NOTE.—Compare nōn nūllus, nōn nēmō, etc., in a above.
SYNTAX: PARTICLES

327. A general negation is not destroyed—
1. By a following nē…quidem, not even, or nōn modo, not only:—

numquam tū nōn modo ōtium, sed nē bellum quidem nisi nefārium concupīsti (Cat. i. 25), not only have you never desired repose, but you have never desired any war except one which was infamous.

2. By succeeding negatives each introducing a separate subordinate member:—

eaque nesciēbant nec ubi nec quālia essent (Tusc. iii. 4), they knew not where or of what kind these things were.

3. By neque introducing a coordinate member:—

nequeō satis mīrārī neque conicere (Ter. Eun. 547), I cannot wonder enough nor conjecture.

328. The negative is frequently joined with a conjunction or with an indefinite pronoun or adverb. Hence the forms of negation in Latin differ from those in English in many expressions:—

nūllī (neutrī) credo (not nōn crēdō ūllī), I do not believe either (I believe neither).

sine ūllō perīculō (less commonly cum nūllō), with no danger (without any danger).

nihil umquam audīvī iūcundius, I never heard anything more amusing.

Cf. negō haec esse vēra (not dīcō nōn esse), I say this is not true (I deny, etc.).

a. In the second of two connected ideas, and not is regularly expressed by neque (nec), not by et nōn:—

hostēs terga vertērunt, neque prius fugere dēstitērunt (B. G. i. 53), the enemy turned and fled, and did not stop fleeing until, etc.

NOTE.—Similarly nec quisquam is regularly used for et nēmō; neque ullus for et nullus; nec umquam for et numquam; nēve (neu), for et nē.

329. The particle immo, nay, is used to contradict some part of a preceding statement or question, or its form; in the latter case, the same statement is often repeated in a stronger form, so that immo becomes nearly equivalent to yes (nay but, nay rather):—

causa igitur nōn bona est? immo optima (Att. ix. 7. 4), is the cause then not a good one? on the contrary, the best.

a. Minus, less (especially with sī, if, quō, in order that), and minimē, least, often have a negative force:—

sī minus possunt, if they cannot. [For quō minus, see § 558. b.]

audācissimus ego ex omnibus? minimē (Rosc. Am. 2), am I the boldest of them all? by no means (not at all).

FORMS OF INTERROGATION

QUESTIONS

Forms of Interrogation

330. Questions are either Direct or Indirect.
1. A Direct Question gives the exact words of the speaker:—

quid est? what is it? ubi sum?where am I?

2. An Indirect Question gives the substance of the question, adapted to the form of the sentence in which it is quoted. It depends on a verb or other expression of asking, doubting, knowing, or the like:—

rogāvit quid esset, he asked what it was. [Direct: quid est, what is it?]

nesciō ubi sim, I know not where I am. [Direct: ubi sum, where am I?]

331. Questions in Latin are introduced by special interrogative words, and are not distinguished by the order of words, as in English.¹⁷⁰
NOTE.—The form of Indirect Questions (in English introduced by whether, or by an interrogative pronoun or adverb) is in Latin the same as that of Direct; the difference being only in the verb, which in indirect questions is regularly in the Subjunctive (§ 574).

332. A question of simple fact, requiring the answer yes or no, is formed by adding the enclitic -ne to the emphatic word:—

tūne id veritus es (Q. Fr. i. 3. 1), did YOU fear that?

hīcine vir usquam nisi in patriā moriētur (Mil. 104), shall THIS man die anywhere but in his native land?

is tibi mortemne vidētur aut dolōrem timēre (Tusc. v. 88), does he seem to you to fear death or pain?

a. The interrogative particle -ne is sometimes omitted:—

patēre tua cōnsilia nōn sentīs (Cat. i. 1), do you not see that your schemes are manifest? (you do not see, eh?)

NOTE.—In such cases, as no sign of interrogation appears, it is often doubtful whether the sentence is a question or an ironical statement.

b. When the enclitic -ne is added to a negative word, as in nōnne, an affirmative answer is expected. The particle num suggests a negative answer:—

nōnne animadvertis (N. D. iii. 89,), do you not observe?

num dubium est (Rosc. Am. 107), there is no doubt, is there?

NOTE.—In Indirect Questions num commonly loses its peculiar force and means simply whether.
SYNTAX: QUESTIONS
c. The particle -ne often when added to the verb, less commonly when added to some other word, has the force of nōnne:—

meministīne mē in senātū dīcere (Cat. i. 7), don't you remember my saying in the Senate?

rēctēne interpretor sententiam tuam (Tusc. iii. 37), do I not rightly interpret your meaning?

NOTE 1.—This was evidently the original meaning of -ne; but in most cases the negative force was lost and -ne was used merely to express a question. So the English interrogative no? shades off into eh?

NOTE 2.—The enclitic -ne is sometimes added to other interrogative words: as, utrumne, whether? anne, or; quantane (Hor. S. ii. 3. 317), how big? quōne malō (id. ii.3. 295), by what curse?

333. A question concerning some special circumstance is formed by prefixing to the sentence an interrogative pronoun or adverb as in English (§ 152):—

quid exspectās (Cat. ii. 18), what are you looking forward to?

quō igitur haec spectant (Fam. vi. 6. 11), whither then is all this tending?

Icare, ubi es (Ov. M. viii. 232), Icarus, where are you?

quod vectīgal vōbīs tūtum fuit? quem socium dēfendistis? cui praesidiō classibus vestrīs fuistis? (Manil. 32), what revenue has been safe for you? what ally have you defended? whom have you guarded with your fleets?

NOTE.—A question of this form becomes an exclamation by changing the tone of the voice: as,—

quālis vir erat! what a man he was!

quot calamitātēs passī sumus! how many misfortunes we have suffered!

quō studiō cōnsentiunt (Cat. iv. 15), with what zeal they unite!

a. The particles -nam (enclitic) and tandem may be added to interrogative pronouns and adverbs for the sake of emphasis:—

quisnam est, pray who is it? [quis tandem est? would be stronger.]

ubinam gentium sumus (Cat. i. 9), where in the world are we?

in quā tandem urbe hōc disputant (Mil. 7), in what city, pray, do they maintain this?

NOTE.—Tandem is sometimes added to verbs:—

ain tandem (Fam. ix. 21), you don't say so! (say you so, pray?)

itane tandem uxōrem dūxit Antiphō (Ter. Ph. 231), so then, eh? Antipho's got married.

Double Questions

334. A Double or Alternative Question is an inquiry as to which of two or more supposed cases is the true one.

335. In Double or Alternative Questions, utrum or -ne, whether, stands in the first member; an, anne, or, annōn, necne, or not, in the second; and usually an in the third, if there be one:— DOUBLE QUESTIONS

utrum nescīs, an prō nihilō id putās (Fam. x. 26), is it that you don't know, or do you think nothing of it?

vōsne L. Domitium an vōs Domitius dēseruit (B. C. ii. 32), did you desert Lucius Domitius, or did Domitius desert you?

quaerō servōsne an līberōs (Rosc. Am. 74), I ask whether slaves or free.

utrum hostem an vōs an fortūnam utrīusque populī īgnōrātis (Liv. xxi. 10), is it the enemy, or yourselves, or the fortune of the two peoples, that you do not know?

NOTE.—Anne for an is rare. Necne is rare in direct questions, but in indirect questions it is commoner than annōn. In poetry -ne … -ne sometimes occurs.

a. The interrogative particle is often omitted in the first member; in which case an or -ne (anne, necne) may stand in the second:—

Gabīniō dīcam anne Pompêiō an utrīque (Manil. 57), shall I say to Gabinius, or to Pompey, or to both?

sunt haec tua verba necne (Tusc. iii. 41), are these your words or not?

quaesīvī ā Catilīnā in conventū apud M. Laecam fuisset necne (Cat. ii. 13), I asked Catiline whether he had been at the meeting at Marcus Laeca's or not.

b. Sometimes the first member is omitted or implied, and an (anne) alone asks the question,—usually with indignation or surprise:—

an tū miserōs putās illōs (Tusc. i. 13), what! do you think those men wretched?

an iste umquam dē sē bonam spem habuisset, nisi dē vōbīs malam opīniōnem animō imbibisset (Verr. i. 42), would he ever have had good hopes about himself unless he had conceived an evil opinion of you?

c. Sometimes the second member is omitted or implied, and utrum may ask a question to which there is no alternative:—

utrum est in clarissimis civibus is, quem … (Flacc. 45), is he among the noblest citizens, whom, etc.?

d. The following table exhibits the various forms of alternative questions:—

utrum … an… an utrum … annon (necne, see § 335 N.)

— … an (anne)

-ne … an

— … -ne, necne

-ne … necne

-ne … -ne

NOTE.—From double (alternative) questions must be distinguished those which are in themselves single, but of which some detail is alternative. These have the common disjunctive particles aut or vel (-ve). Thus,—quaerō num iniūstē aut improbē fēcerit (Off. iii. 54), I ask whether he acted unjustly or even dishonestly. Here there is no double question. The only inquiry is whether the man did either of the two things supposed, not which of the two he did.
SYNTAX: QUESTIONS

Question and Answer

336. There is no one Latin word in common use meaning simply yes or no. In answering a question affirmatively, the verb or some other emphatic word is generally repeated; in answering negatively, the verb, etc., with nōn or a similar negative:—

valetne, is he well? valet, yes (he is well).

eratne tēcum, was he with you?nōn erat, no (he was not).

num quidnam novī? there is nothing new, is there? nihil sānē, oh! nothing.

a. An intensive or negative particle, a phrase, or a clause is sometimes used to answer a direct question:—
1. For YES:—

vērō, in truth, true, no doubt, yes.

ita verō, certainly (so in truth), etc.

etiam, even so, yes, etc.

sānē quidem, yes, no doubt, etc.

ita, so, true, etc.

ita est, it is so, true, etc.

sānē, surely, no doubt, doubtless, etc.

certē, certainly, unquestionably, etc.

factum, true, it's a fact, you're right, etc. (lit., it was done).

2. For NO:—

nōn, not so.

nūllō modō, by no means.

minimē, not at all (lit., in the smallest degree, cf. § 329. a).

minimē vērō, no, not by any means; oh! no, etc.

nōn quidem, why, no; certainly not, etc.

nōn hercle vērō, why, gracious, no! (certainly not, by Hercules!)

Examples are:—

quidnam? an laudātiōnes? ita, why, what? is it eulogies? just so.

aut etiam aut nōn respondēre (Acad. ii. 104), to answer (categorically) yes or no

estne ut fertur forma? sānē (Ter. Eun. 361), is she as handsome as they say she is? (is her beauty as it is said?) oh! yes.

miser ergō Archelāus? certē sī iniūstus (Tusc. v. 35), was Archelaus wretched then? certainly, if he was unjust.

an haec contemnitis? minimē (De Or. ii. 295), do you despise these things? not at all.

volucribusne et ferīs? minimē vērō (Tusc. i. 104), to the birds and beasts? why, of course not.

ex tuī animī sententiā tū uxōrem habēs? nōn hercle, ex meī animī sententiā (De Or. ii. 260), Lord! no, etc.

337. In answering a double question, one member of the alternative, or some part of it, must be repeated:—

vīdistī an dē audītō nūntīas?—egomet vīdī (Plaut. Merc. 902), did you see it or are you repeating something you have heard?—I saw it myself.

CONSTRUCTION OF CASES

338. The Cases of nouns express their relations to other words in the sentence. The most primitive way of expressing such relations was by mere juxtaposition of uninflected forms. From this arose in time composition, i.e. the growing together of stems, by means of which a complex expression arises with its parts mutually dependent. Thus such a complex as armi-gero- came to mean arm-bearing; fidi-cen-, playing on the lyre. Later, Cases were formed by means of suffixes expressing more definitely such relations, and Syntax began. But the primitive method of composition still continues to hold an important place even in the most highly developed languages. Originally the Indo-European family of languages, to which Latin belongs, had at least seven case-forms, besides the Vocative. But in Latin the Locative and the Instrumental were lost¹⁷¹ except in a few words (where they remained without being recognized as cases), and their functions were divided anuong the other cases. The Nominative, Accusative, and Vocative express tbe simplest and perhaps the earliest case-relations. The Nominative is the case of the Subject, and generally ends in -s. The Vocative, usually without a termination, or like the Nominative (§ 38 a) perhaps never had a suffix of its own.¹⁷² The Accusative, most frequently formed by the suffix -m, originally connected the noun loosely with the verb-idea, not necessarily expressed by a verb proper, but as well by a noun or an adjective (see §386). The Genitive appears to have expressed a great variety of relations and to have had no single primitive meaning; and the same may be true of the Dative. The other cases perhaps at first expressed relations of place or direction (TO, FROM, AT, WITH), though this is not clear in all instances. The earlier meanings, however have become confused with each other, and in many instances the cases are no longer distinguishable in meaning or in form. Thus the Locative was for the most part lost from its confusion with the Dative and Ablative; and its function was often performed by the Ablative, which is freely used to express the place where (§ 421). To indicate the case-relations—especially those of place—more precisely, Prepositions (originally adverbs) gradually came into use. The case-endings, thus losing something of their significance, were less distinctly pronounced as time went on (see § 36, phonetic decay), and prepositions have finally superseded them in the modern languages derived from Latin. But in Latin a large and various body of relations was still expressed by case-forms. It is to be noticed that in their literal use cases tended to adopt the preposition and in their figurative uses to retain the old construction. (See Ablative of Separation §§ 402–404; Ablative of Place and Time, §421 ff.) The word cāsus, case, is a translation of tbe Greek πτ~ωσισ, a falling away (from the erect position). The term πτ~ωσισ was originally applied to the Oblique Cases (§35. g), to mark them as variations from the Nominative, which was called ὀρθή, erect (cāsus rēctus) The later name Nominative(cāsus nōminātīvus) is from nōminō, and means the naming case. The other case-names (except Ablative) are of Greek origin. The name Genitive (cāsus genetīvus) is a translation of γενική [πτ~ωσις], from γένοσ (class), and refers to the class to which a thing belongs. Dative (cāsus datīvus, from dō) is translated from δοτική, and means the case of giving. Accusative (accūsātīvus, from accūsō) is a mistranslation of αἰτιατική, (the case of causing), from αἰτία, cause, and meant to the Romans the case of accusing. The name Vocative (vocātīvus, from vocō) is translated from κλητική (the case of calling). The name Ablative (ablātīvus, from ablātus, auferō) means taking from. This case the Greek had lost. SYNTAX: CONSTRUCTION OF CASES

NOMINATIVE CASE

339. The Subject of a finite verb is in the Nominative:—

Caesar Rhēnum trānsīre dēcrēverat (B. G. iv. 17), Caesar had determined to cross the Rhine.

For the omission of a pronominal subject, see § 295. a.
a. The nominative may be used in exclamations:—

ēn dextra fidēsque (Aen. iv. 597), lo, the filth and plighted word!

ecce tuae litterae dē Varrōne (Att. xiii. 16), lo and behold, your letters about Varro!

NOTE.—But the accusative is more common (§ 397. d).

VOCATIVE CASE

340. The Vocative is the case of direct address:—

Tiberīne pater, tē, sāncte, precor (Liv. ii. 10), 0 father Tiber, thee, holy one, I pray.

rēs omnis mihi tēcum erit, Hortēnsī (Verr. i. 33), my whole attention will be devoted to you, Hortensius.

a. A noun in the nominative in apposition with the subject of the imperative mood is sometimes used instead of the vocative:—

audī tū, populus Albānus (Liv. i. 24), hear, thou people of Alba.

b. The vocative of an adjective is sometimes used in poetry instead of the nominative, where the verb is in the second person:—

quō moritūre ruis (Aen. x. 811), whither art thou rushing to thy doom ?

cēnsōrem trabeāte salūtās (Pers. iii. 29), robed you salute the censor.

c. The vocative macte is used as a predicate in the phrase macte estō (virtūte), success attend your (valor):—

iubērem tē macte virtūte esse (Liv. ii. 12), I should bid you go on and prosper in your valor.

macte novā virtūte puer (Aen. ix. 641), success attend your valor, boy!

NOTE.—As the original quantity of the final e in macte is not determinable, it may be that the word was an adverb, as in bene est and the like.

GENITIVE CASE

341. The Genitive is regularly used to express the relation of one noun to another. Hence it is sometimes called the adjective case, to distinguish it from the Dative and the Ablative, which may be called adverbial cases. POSSESSIVE GENITIVE The uses of the Genitive may be classified as follows:—

GENITIVE WITH NOUNS

342. A noun used to limit or define another, and not meaning the same person or thing, is put in the Genitive. This relation is most frequently expressed in English by the preposition of, sometimes by the English genitive (or possessive) case:—

librī Cicerōnis, the books of Cicero, or Cicero's books.

inimīcī Caesaris, Caesar's enemies, or the enemies of Caesar.

talentum aurī, a talent of gold.

vir summae virtūtis, a man of the greatest courage.

But observe the following equivalents:—

vacātiō labōris, a respite FROM toil.

petītiō cōnsulātūs, candidacy FOR the consulship.

rēgnum cīvitātis, royal power OVER the state.

Possessive Genitive

343. The Possessive Genitive denotes the person or thing to which an object, quality, feeling, or action belongs:—

Alexandrī canis, Alexander's dog.

potentia Pompêī (Sall. Cat. 19), Pompey's power.

Ariovistī mors (B. G. v. 29), the death of Ariovistus.

perditōrum temeritās (Mil. 22), the recklessness of desperate men.

NOTE 1.—The Possessive Genitive may denote (1) the actual owner (as in Alexander's dog) or author (as in Cicero's orations), or (2) the person or thing that possesses some feeling or quality or does some act (as in Cicero's eloquence, the strength of the bridge, Catiline's evil deeds). In the latter use it is sometimes called the Subjective Genitive; but this term properly includes the possessive genitive and several other genitive constructions (nearly all, in fact, except the Objective Genitive, §347).

NOTE 2.—The noun limited is understood in a few expressions:—

ad Castoris [aedēs] (Quinct. 17), at the [temple] of Castor. [Cf. St. Paul's.]

Flaccus Claudī, Flaccus [slave] of Claudius.

Hectoris Andromachē (Aen. iii. 319), Hector's [wife] Andromache.

SYNTAX: CONSTRUCTION OF CASES
a. For the genitive of possession a possessive or derivative adjective is often used,—regularly for the possessive genitive of the personal pronouns (§ 302. a):

liber meus, my book. [Not liber meī.]

aliēna perīcula, other men's dangers. [But also aliōrum.]

Sullāna tempora, the times of Sulla. [Oftener Sullae.]

b. The possessive genitive often stands in the predicate, connected with its noun by a verb (Predicate Genitive):—

haec domus est patris mei, this house is my father's.

iam mē Pompêī tōtum esse scīs (Fam. ii. 13), you know I am now all for Pompey (all Pompey's)

summa laus et tua et Brutī est (Fam. xii. 4. 2), the highest praise is due both to you and to Brutus (is both yours and Brutus's).

compendi facere, to save (make of saving).

lucrī facere, to get the benefit of (make of profit).

NOTE.—These genitives bear the same relation to the examples in § 343 that a predicate noun bears to an appositive (§§ 282, 283).

c. An infinitive or a clause, when used as a noun, is often limited by a genitive in the predicate:—

neque suī iūdicī [erat] discernere (B. C. i. 35), nor was it for his judgment to decide (nor did it belong to his judgment).

cûiusvīs hominis est errāre (Phil. xii. 5), it is any man's [liability] to err.

negāvit moris esse Graecōrum, ut in convīviō virōrum accumberent mulierēs (Verr. ii. 1. 66), he said it was not the custom of the Greeks for women to appear as guests (recline) at the banquets of men..

sed timidī est optāre necem (Ov. M. iv. 115), but 'tis the coward's part to wish for death.

stultī erat spērare, suādēre impudentis (Phil. ii. 23), it was folly (the part of a fool) to hope, effrontery to urge.

sapientis est pauca loquī, it is wise (the part of a wise man) to say little [Not sapiēns (neuter) est, etc.]

NOTE 1.—This construction is regular with adjectives of the third declension, instead of the neuter nominative (see the last two examples).

NOTE 2.—A derivative or possessive adjective may be used for the genitive in thie construction, and must be used for the genitive of a personal pronoun:—

mentīrī nōn est meum [not meī], it is not for me to lie.

hūmānum [for hominis] est errāre, it is man's nature to err (to err is human).

d. A limiting genitive is sometimes used instead of a noun in apposition (Appositional Genitive) (§ 282):—

nōmen īnsaniae (for nōmen insania), the word madness.

oppidum Antiochīae (for oppidum Antiochīa, the regular form), the city of Antioch.

PARTITIVE GENITIVE

Genitive of Material

344. The Genitive may denote the Substance or Material of which a thing consists (cf. § 403):—

talentum aurī, a talent of gold. flūmina lactis, rivers of milk.

Genitive of Quality

345. The Genitive is used to denote Quality, but only when the quality is modified by an adjective:—

vir summae virtūtis, a man of the highest courage. [But not vir virtūtis.]

māgnae est dēlīberātiōnis, it is an affair of great deliberation.

māgnī formica labōris (Hor. S. i. 1. 33),the ant [a creature] of great toil.

ille autem suī iūdicī (Nep. Att. 9), but he [a man] of independent (his own) judgement.

NOTE.—Compare Ablative of Quality (§ 415) . In expressions of quality, the genitive or the ablative may often be used indifferently: as, praestantī prūdentiā vir, a man of surpasing wisdom; maximī animī homō, a man of the greatest courage. In classic prose, however, the genitive of quality is much less common than the ablative; it is practically confined to expressions of measure or number, to a phrase with êius, and to nouns modified by māgnus, maximus, summus, or tantus. In general the Genitive is used rather of essential, the Ablative of special or incidental characteristics.

a. The genitive of quality is found in the adjective phrases êius modī, cûius modī (equivalent to tālis, such; quālis, of what sort):—

êius modī sunt tempestātēs cōnsecūtae, utī (B. G. iii. 29), such storms followed, that, etc.

b. The genitive of quality, with numerals, is used to define measures of length, depth, etc. (Genitive of Measure):—

fossa trium pedum, a trench of three feet [in depth].

mūrus sēdecum pedum, a wall of sixteen feet [high].

For the Genitive of Quality used to express indefinite value, see § 417.

Partitive Genitive

346. Words denoting a Part are followed by the Genitive of the Whole to which the part belongs.
a. Partitive words, followed by the genitive, are—
1. Nouns or Pronouns (cf. also 3 below):—

pars mīlitum, part of the soldiers. quis nostrum, which of us?

nihil erat reliquī, there was nothing left.

nēmō eōrum (B. G. vii. 66), not a man of them.

māgnam partem eōrum interfēcērunt (id. ii. 23), they killed a large part of them.

SYNTAX: CONSTRUCTION OF CASES
2. Numerals, Comparatives, Superlatives, and Pronominal words like alius, alter, nūllus, etc.:—

ūnus tribūnorum, one of the tribunes (see c below).

sapientum octāvus, (Hor. S. ii. 3. 296), the eighth of the wise men.

mīlia passuum sescenta (B. G. iv. 3),six hundred miles (thousands of paces).

mâior frātrum, the elder of the brothers.

animālium fortiōra, the stronger [of] animals.

Suēbōrum gēns est longē maxima et bellicōsissima Germānōrum omnium (B. G. iv. 1), the tribe of the Suevi is far the largest and most warlike of all the Germans.

alter cōnsulum, one of the [two] consuls.

nūlla eārum (B. G. iv. 28),not one of them (the ships).

3. Neuter Adjectives and Pronouns, used as nouns:—

tantum spatī, so much [of] space.

aliquid nummōrum, a few pence (something of coins).

id locī (or locōrum), that spot of ground; id temporis, at that time (§ 397. a)

plāna urbis, the level parts of the town.

quid novī, what news? (what of new ?)

paulum frūmentī (B. C. i. 78), a little grain.

plūs dolōris (B. G. i. 20), more grief.

suī aliquid timōris (B. C. ii. 29) some fear of his own (something of his own fear).

NOTE 1.—In classic prose neuter adjectives (not pronominal) seldom take a partitive genitive, except multum, tantum, quantum, and similar words.

NOTE 2.—The genitive of adjectives of the third declension is rarely used partitively: nihil novī (genitive), nothing new; but,—nihil memorābile (nominative), nothing worth mention (not nihil memorābilis).
4. Adverbs, especially those of Quantity and of Place:—

parum ōtī, not much ease (too little of ease).

satis pecūniae, money enough (enough of money).

plūrimum tōtīus Galliae equitātū valet (B. G. v. 3), is strongest of all Gaul in cavalry.

ubinam gentium sumus (Cat. i. 9), where in the world are we (where of nations) ?

ubicumque terrārum et gentium (Verr. v. 143),wherever in the whole world.

rēs erat eō iam locī ut (Sest. 68), the business had now reached such a point that, etc.

eō miseriārum (Iug. 14. 3),to that [pitch] of misery.

inde locī, next in order (thence of place). [Poetical.]

b. The poets and later writers often use the partitive genitive after adjectives, instead of a noun in its proper case:—

sequimur tē, sāncte deōrum (Aen. iv. 576),we follow thee, O holy deity. [For sāncte deus (§ 49. g. N.)]

nigrae lānārum (Plin. H. N. viii. 193), back wool. [For nigrae lānae.]

expedītī mīlitum (Liv. xxx. 9), light-armed soldiers. [For expedītī mīlitēs.]

hominum cūnctōs (Ov. M. iv. 631), all men. [For cūnctōs hominēs; cf. e.]

OBJECTIVE GENITIVE
c. Cardinal numerals (except mīlia) regularly take the Ablative with ē (ex) or dē instead of the Partitive Genitive. So also quīdam, a certain one commonly, and other words occasionally:—

ūnus ex tribūnis, one of the tribunes. [But also, ūnus tribūnōrum (cf. a. 2).]

minumus ex illīs (Iug. 1l), the youngest of them.

medius ex tribus (ib.), the middle one of the three.

quīdam ex militibus, certain of the soldiers.

ūnus dē multīs (Fin. ii. 66),one of the many.

pauci dē nostrīs cadunt (B. G. i. 15), a few of our men fall.

hominem dē comitibus meīs, a man of my companions.

d. Uterque, both (properly each) and quisque, each, with Nouns are regularly used as adjectives in agreement, but with Pronouns take a partitive genitive:—

uterque cōnsul, both the consuls; but, uterque nostrum both of us

ūnus quisque vestrum, each one of you.

utraque castra, both camps.

e. Numbers and words of quantity including the whole of any thing take a case in agreement, and not the partitive genitive. So also words denoting a part when only that part is thought of:—

nōs omnēs, all of us (we all). [Not omnēs nostrum.]

quot sunt hostēs, how many of the enemy are there ?

cavē īnimīcōs, quī multī sunt, beware of your enemies, who are many.

multī mīlitēs, many of the soldiers.

nēmō Rōmānus, not one Roman.

Objective Genitive

347. The Objective Genitive is used with Nouns, Adjectives, and Verbs.

348. Nouns of action, agency, and feeling govern the Genitive of the Object:—

cāritās tuī, affection for you.	fuga malōrum, refuge from disaster.
dēsīderium ōtī, longing for rest.	precātiō deōrum, prayer to the yods.
vacātiō mūneris, relief from duty.	contentiō honōrum, struggle for office.
grātia beneficī, gratitude for kindness.	opiniō virtūtis, reputation for valor.

NOTE.—This usage is an extension of the idea of belonging to (Possessive Genitive). Thus in the phrase odium Caesaris, hate of Caesar, the hate in a passive sense belongs to Caesar, as odium, though in its active sense he is the object of it, as hate. (cf. a). The distinction between the Possessive (subjective) and the Objective Genitive is very unstable and is often lost sight of. It is illustrated by the following example: the phrase amor patris, love of a father, may mean love felt by a father, a father's love (subjective genitive), or love towards a father (objective genitive).
SYNTAX: CONSTRUCTION OF CASES
a. The objective genitive is sometimes replaced by a possessive pronoun or derivative adjective:—

mea invidia, my unpopularity (the dislike of which I am the object). [Cf. odium meī (Har. Resp. 5), hatred of me.]

laudātor meus (Att. i. 16. 5), my eulogist (one who praises me). [Cf. nostrī laudātor (id. i. 14. 6)]

Clōdiānum crīmen (Mil. 72), the murder of Clodius (the Clodian charge). [As we say, the Nathan murder.]

metus hostīlis, (Iug. 41), fear of the enemy (hostile fear).

ea quae faciēbat, tuā sē fīdūciā facere dīcēbat (Verr. v. 176), what he was doing, he said he did relying on you (with your reliance).

neque neglegentiā tuā, neque id odiō fēcit tuō (Ter. Ph. 1016), he did this neither from neglect nor from hatred of you.

b. Rarely the objective genitive is used with a noun already limited by another genitive:—

animī multārum rērum percursiō (Tusc. iv. 31), the mind's traversing of many things.

c. A noun with a preposition is often used instead of the objective genitive:—

odium in Antōnium (Fam. x. 5. 3), hate of Antony.

merita ergā mē (id. i. 1. 1), services to me.

meam in tē pietātem (id. i. 9. 1), my devotion to you.

impetus in urbem (Phil. xii. 29), an attack on the city.

excessus ē vītā (Fin. iii. 60), departure from life. [Also, excessus vītae, Tusc. i. 27.]

adoptiō in Domitium (Tac. Ann. xii. 25), the adoption of Domitius. [A late and bold extension of this construction.]

NOTE.—So also in later writers the dative of reference (cf. § 366. b.): as,— longō bellō māteria (Tac. H. i. 89), resources for a long war.

GENITIVE WITH ADJECTIVES

349. Adjectives requiring an object of reference govern the Objective Genitive.
a. Adjectives denoting desire, knowledge, memory, fulness, power, sharing, guilt, etc., and their opposites govern the genitive:

avidī laudis (Manil. 7), greedy of praise.

fastīdiōsus litterārum, disdaining letters.

iūris perītus, skilled in law. [So also the ablative, iūre, cf. § 418.]

memorem vestrī, oblltum suī (Cat. iv. 19), mindful of you, forgetful of himself.

ratiōnis et orātiōnis expertēs (Off. i. 50), devoid of sense and speech.

nostrae cōnsuētūdinis imperītī (B. G. iv. 22),unacquainted with our customs.

GENITIVE WITH ADJECTIVES plēnus fideī, full of good faith.

omnis speī egēnam (Tac. Ann. i. 53),destitute of all hope.

tempestātum potentem (Aen. i. 80), having sway over the storms.

impotēns īrae (Liv. xxix. 9. 9), ungovernable in anger.

coniūrātiōnis participēs (Cat. iii. 14),sharing in the conspiracy.

affīnis reī capitālis (Verr. ii. 2. 94),involved in a capital crime.

īnsōns culpae (Liv. xxii. 49) innocent of guilt.

b. Participles in -ns govern the genitive when they are used as adjectives, i.e. when they denote a constant disposition and not a particular act:

sī quem tuī amantiōrem cōgnōvistī (Q. Fr. i. 1. 15), if you have become acquainted with any one more fond of you.

multitūdō insolēns bellī (B. C. ii. 36), a crowd unused to war.

erat Iugartha appetēns glōriae mīlitāris (Iug. 7) , Jugurtha was eager for military glory.

NOTE 1.—Participles in -ns, when used as participles, take the case regularly governed by the verb to which they belong: as,— Sp. Maelium rēgnum appetentem interēmit (Cat. M. 56), he put to death Spurius Maelius, who was aspiring to royal power.

NOTE 2.—Occasionally participial forms in -ns are treated as participles (see note 1) even when they express a disposition or character: as,— virtūs quam aliī ipsam temperantiam dīcunt esse, aliī obtemperantem temperantiae praeceptīs et eam subsequentem (Tusc. iv. 30), observant of the teachings of temperance and obedient to her.

c. Verbals in -āx (§ 251) govern the genitive in poetry and later Latin:—

iūs tum et tenācem prōpositī virum (Hor. Od. iii. 3) , a man just and steadfast to his purpose.

circus capāx populī (Ov. A. A. i. 136) ,a circus big enough to hold the people.

cibī vīnīque capācissimus (Liv. ix. 16. 13), a very great eater and drinker (very able to contain food and wine).

d. The poets and later writers use the genitive with almost any adjective, to denote that with reference to which the quality exists (Genitive of Specification):—

callidus reī mīlitāris (Tac. H. ii. 32),skilled in soldiership.

pauper aquae (Hor. Od. iii. 30. 11), scant of water.

nōtus animī paternī (id. ii. 2. 6), it famed for a paternal spirit.

fessī rērum (Aen. i. 178), weary of toil.

integer vītae scelerisque pūrus (Hor. Od. i. 22. l) upright in life, and unstained by guilt.

NOTE.—The Genitive of Specification is only an extension of the construction with adjectives requiring an object of reference (§349). Thus callidus denotes knowledge; pauper, want; pūrus, innocence; and so these words in a manner belong to the classes under a. For the Ablative of Specification, the prose construction, see § 418. For Adjectives of likeness etc. with the Genitive, apparently Objective, see § 385. c. For Adjectives with animī (locative in origin), see § 358.
SYNTAX: CONSTRUCTION OF CASES

GENITIVE WITH VERBS

Verbs of Remembering and Forgetting

350. Verbs of remembering and forgetting take either the Accusative or the Genitive of the object:—
a. Meminī takes the Accusative when it has the literal sense of retaining in the mind what one has seen, heard, or learned. Hence the accusative is used of persons whom one remembers as acquaintances, or of things which one has experienced. So oblīvīscor in the opposite sense,—to forget literally, to lose all memory of a thing (very rarely, of a person).

Cinnam meminī (Phil. v. 17), I remember Cinna.

utinam avum tuum meminissēs (id. i. 34), oh! that you could remember your grandfather! (but he died before you were born).

Postumium, cûius statuam in Isthmō meminisse tē dīcis (Att. xiii. 32), Postumius, whose statue you say you remember (to have seen) on the Isthmus.

omnia meminit Sīron Epicūrī dogmata (Acad. ii. 106), Siron remembers all the doctrines of Epicurus.

multa ab aliīs audīta meminērunt (De Or. ii. 355), I remember many things that they have heard from others.

tōtam causam oblītus est (Brut. 217), he forgot the whole case.

hiuc iam oblīvīscere Grâiōs (Aen. ii. 148), from henceforth forget tke Greeks (i.e. not merely disregard them, but banish them from your mind, as if you had never known them).

b. Meminī takes the Genitive when it means to be mindful or regardful of a person or thing, to think of somebody or something (often with special interest or warmth of feeling). So oblīvīscor in the opposite sense, to disregard, or dismiss from the mind, and the adjective oblītus, careless or regardless.

ipse suī meminerat (Verr. ii. 136), he was mindful of himself (of his own interests).

faciam ut hûius locī dieique meique semper memineris (Ter. Eun. 801), I will make you remember this place and this day and me as long as you live.

nec mē meminisse pigēbit Elissae, dum memor ipse meī (Aen. iv. 335), nor shall I feel regret at the thought of Elissa, so long as I remember myself.

meminerint verēcundiae (Off. i. 122),let them cherish modesty.

hūmānae īnfīrmitātis memīnī (Liv. xxx. 31. 6), I remember human weakness.

oblīvīscī temporum meōrum, meminisse āctiōnum (Fam. i. 9. 8), to disregard my own interests, to be mindful of the matters at issue.

nec tamen Epicūrī licet oblīvīscī (Fin. v. 3), and yet I must not forget Epicurus.

oblīvīscere caedis atque incendiorum (Cat. i. 6), turn your mind from slaughter and conflagrions (dismiss them from your thoughts).

GENITIVE WITH VERBS
NOTE 1.—With both meminī and oblīvīscor the personal and reflexive pronouns are regularly in the Genitive; neuter pronouns and adjectives used substantively are regularly in the Accusative; abstract nouns are often in the Genitive. These uses come in each instance from the natural meaning of the verbs (as defined above).

NOTE 2.—Meminī in the sense of mention takes the Genitive: as,—eundem Achillam cûius suprā meminimus (B. C. iii. 108), that same Achillas whom I mentioned above.

c. Reminiscor is rare. It takes the Accusative in the literal sense of call to mind, recollect; the Genitive in the more figurative sense of be mindful of:—

dulcīs moriēns reminīscitur Argōs (Aen. x. 782), as he dies he calls to mind his beloved Argos.

reminiscerētur et ceteris incommodī populī Rōmānī et prīstinae virtūtis Helvētiōrum (B. G. i. 13), let him remember both the former discomfiture of the Roman people and the ancient valor of the Helvetians. [A warning, let him bear it in mind (and beware)!]

d. Recordor, recollect, recall, regularly takes the Accusative:—

recordāre consensum illum theatrī (Phil. i. 30), recall that unanimous agreement of the [audience in the] theatre.

recordāminī omnīs civīlīs dissēnsiōnēs (Cat. iii. 24), call to mind all the civil wars.

NOTE.—Recordor takes the genitive once (Pison. 12); it is never used with a personal object, but may be followed by de with the ablative of the person or thing (cf. § 351. N.):—

dē tē recordor (Scaur. 49), I remember about you.

dē illīs (lacrimīs) recordor (Planc. 104), I am reminded of those tears.

Verbs of Reminding

351. Verbs of reminding take with the Accusative of the person a Genitive of the thing; except in the case of a neuter pronoun, which is put in the accusative (cf. § 390. c). So admoneō, commoneō, commonefaciō, commonefīō. But moneō with the genitive is found in late writers only.

Catilina admonēbat alium egestātis, alium cupiditātis suae (Sall. Cat. 21), Catiline reminded one of his poverty, another of his cupidity.

eōs hōc moneō (Cat. ii. 20), I give them this warning.

quod vōs lēx commonet (Verr. iii. 40), that which the law reminds you of.

NOTE.—All these verbs often take dē with the ablative, and the accusative of nouns as well as of pronouns is sometimes used with them:—

saepius tē admoneō dē syngraphā Sittiānā (Fam. viii. 4. 5) I remind you again and again of Sittius's bond.

officium vostrum ut vōs malō cōgātis commonērier (Plaut. Ps. 150), that you may by misfortune force yourselves to be reminded of your duty.

SYNTAX: CONSTRUCTION OF CASES

Verbs of Accusing, Condemning, and Acquitting

352. Verbs of accusing, condemning, and acquitting, take the Genitive of the Charge or Penalty:

arguit mē furtī, he accuses me of theft.

pecūlātūs damnātus (pecūniae pūblicae damnātus) (Flacc. 43), condemned for embezzlement.

videō nōn tē absolūtum esse improbitātis, sed illōs damnātōs esse caedis (Verr. ii. 1. 72), I see, not that you were acquitted of outrage, but that they were condemned for homicide.

a. Peculiar genitives, under this construction, are

capitis, as in damnāre capitis, to sentence to death.

mâiestitis [laesae], treason (crime against the dignity of the state).

repetundārum [rērum], extortion (lit. of an action for reclaiming money).

vōtī damnātus (or reus), bound [to the payment] of one's vow, i.e. successful in one's effort.

pecūniae (damnāre, iūdicāre, see note).

duplī etc., as in duplī condemnāre, condemn to pay twofold.

NOTE.—The origin of these genitive constructions is pointed at by pecūniae damnāre (Gell. xx. 1. 38), to condemn to pay money, in a case of injury to the person; quantae pecūniae iūdicātī essent (id. xx. 1. 47), how much money they were adjudged to pay, in a mere suit for debt; cōnfessī aeris ac dēbitī iūdicātī (id. xx. 1. 42), adjudged to owe an admitted sum due. These expressions show that the genitive of the penalty comes from the use of the genitive of value to express a sum of money due either as a debt or as a fine. Since in early civilizations all offences could be compounded by the payment of fines, the genitive came to be used of other punishments, not pecuniary. From this to the genitive of the actual crime is an easy transition, inasmuch as there is always a confusion between crime and penalty (cf. Eng. guilty of death). It is quite unnecessary to assume an ellipsis of crīmine or iūdiciō.

353. Other constructions for the Charge or Penalty are:—
1. The Ablative of Price: regularly of a definite amount of fine, and often of indefinite penalties (cf. § 416): Frusinātēs tertiā parte agrī damnātī (Liv. x. 1), the people of Frusino condemned [to forfeit] a third part of their land.
2. The Ablative with dē, or the Accusative with inter in idiomatic expressions:

dē aleā, for gambling; dē ambitū, for bribery.

dē pecūniīs repetundīs, of extortion (cf. §352. a).

inter sicāriōs (Rosc. Am. 90), as an assassin (among the assassins).

dē vī et mâiestātis damnāti (Phil. i. 21), convicted of assault and treason.

NOTE.—The accusative with ad and in occurs in later writers to express the penalty: as,—ad mortem (Tac. Ann. xvi. 21), to death; ad (in) metalla, to the mines.
GENITIVE WITH VERBS

Verbs of Feeling

354. Many verbs of feeling take the Genitive of the object which excites the feeling.
a. Verbs of pity, as misereor and miserēscō, take the genitive:—

miserēmini familiae, iudicēs, miserēminī patris, miserēmini fīlī (Flacc. 106), have pity on the family, etc.

miserēre animī nōn dīgna ferentis (Aen. ii. 144), pity a soul that endures unworthy things.

miserēscite rēgis (id, viii. 573), pity the king. [Poetical.]

NOTE.—But miseror, commiseror, bewail, take the accusative: as, commūnem condiciōnem miserarī (Mur. 55), bewail the common lot.

b. As impersonals, miseret, paenitet, piget, pudet, taedet (or pertaesum est),take the genitive of the cause of the feeling and the accusative of the person affected:—

quōs īnfāmiae suae neque pudet neque taedet (Verr. i. 35) who are neither ashamed nor weary of their dishonor.

mē miseret parietum ipsōrum (Phil. ii. 69), I pity the very walls.

mē cīvitātis mōrum piget taedetque (Iug. 4), I am sick and tired of the ways of the state.

decemvirōrum vōs pertaesum est (Liv. iii. 67), you became tired of the decemvirs.

c. With miseret, paenitet, etc., the cause of the feeling may be expressed by an infinitive or a clause:

neque mē paenitet mortālīs inimīcitiās habēre (Rab. Post. 32), nor am I sorry to have deadly enmities.

nōn dedisse istunc pudet; mē quia nōn accepī piget (Pl. Pseud. 282), he is ashamed not to have given; I am sorry because I have not received.

NOTE.—Miseret etc. are sometimes used personally with a neuter pronoun as subject: as,— nōn tē haec pudent (Ter. Ad. 754), do these things shame you?

Interest and Rēfert

355. The impersonals interest and rēfert take the Genitive of the person (rarely of the thing) affected. The subject of the verb is a neuter pronoun or a substantive clause:—

Clodī intererat Milōnem perīre (cf. Mil. 56), It was the interest of Clodius that Milo should die.

aliquid quod illōrum magis quam suā rētulisse vidērētur (Iug. 111), something which seemed to be more for their interest than his own.

videō enim quid meā intersit, quid utrīusque nostrum (Fam. vii. 23. 4), for I see what is for my good and for the good of us both.

SYNTAX: CONSTRUCTION OF CASES
a. Instead of the genitive of a personal pronoun the corresponding possessive is used in the ablative singular feminine after interest or rēfert:

quid tuā id rēfert ? māgnī (Ter. Ph. 723), how does that concern you? much. [See also the last two examples above.]

vehementer intererat vestrā quī patrēs estis (Plin. Ep. iv. 13. 4), it would be very much to your advantage, you who are fathers.

NOTE.—This is the only construction with rēfert in classic prose, except in one passage in Sallust (see example above).

b. The accusative with ad is used with interest and rēfert to express the thing with reference to which one is interested:

māgnī ad honōrem nostrum interest (Fam. xvi. 1), it is of great consequence to our honor.

rēfert etiam ad frūctūs (Varr. R. R. i. 16. 6), it makes a difference as to the crop.

NOTE 1.—Very rarely the person is expressed by ad and the accusative, or (with refert) by the dative (probably a popular corruption):—

quid id ad mē aut ad meum rem rēfert (Pl. Pers. 513), what difference does that make to me or to my interests?

quid rēferat intrā nātūrae fīnīs vīventī (Hor. S. i. 1. 49), what difference does it make to me who live within the limits of natural desire?

nōn rēferre dēdecorī (Tac. Ann. xv. 65), that it makes no difference as to the disgrace.

NOTE 2.—The degree of interest is expressed by a genitive of value, an adverb or an adverbial accusative.

Verbs of Plenty and Want

356. Verbs of Plenty and Want sometimes govern the genitive (cf. § 409. a. N.):—

convīvium vīcīnōrum compleō (Cat. M. 46, in the mouth of Cato), I fill up the banquet with my neighbor.

implentur veteris Bacchī pinguisque ferīnae (Aen. i. 215),they fill themselves with old wine and fat venison.

nē quis auxilī egeat (B. G,. vi. 11), lest any require aid.

quid est quod dēfēnsiōnis iudigeat (Rosc. Am. 34),what is there that needs defence?

quae ad cōnsōlandum mâiōris ingenī et ad ferendum singulāris virtūtis indigent (Fam. vi. 4. 2), [sorrows] which for their comforting need more ability, and for endurance unusual courage.

NOTE.—Verbs of plenty and want more commonly take the ablative (see §§ 409. a, 401), except egeō, which takes either case, and indigeō. But the genitive is by a Greek idiom often used in poetry instead oi the ablative with all words denoting separation and want (cf. § 357. b. 3):—

abstinētō īrārum (Hor. Od. iii. 27. 69), refrain from wrath.

operum solūtīs (id. iii. 17. 16), free from toils.

dēsine mollium querellārum (id. ii. 9.17), have done with weak complaints.

PECULIAR GENITIVES

Genitive with Special Verbs

357. The Genitive is used with certain special verbs.
a. The genitive sometimes follows potior, get possession of; as always in the phrase potīrī rērum, to be master of affairs:—

illīus regnī potīri (Fam. i. 7. 5), to become master of that kingdom.

Cleanthēs sōlem domināri et rērum potīrī putat (Acad. ii. 126) Cleanthes thinks the sun holds sway and is lord of the universe.

NOTE.—But potior usually takes the ablative (see § 410).

b. Some other verbs rarely take the genitive:—
1. By analogy with those mentioned in § 354:—

neque hûius sīs veritus fēminae prīmāriae (Ter. Ph. 971), and you had no respect for this high-born lady.

2. As akin to adjectives which take the genitive:—

fastidit meī (Plaut. Aul, 245), he disdains me. [Cf. fastidiōsus.]

studet tuī (quoted N. D. iii. 72), he is zealous for you. [Cf. studiōsus.]

3. In imitation of the Greek:—

iūstidaene prius mīrer, bellīne labōrum (Aen. xi. 126), shall I rather admire his justice or his toils in war ?

neque ille sēpositi ciceris nec longae invīdit avēnae (Hor. S. ii. 6. 84), nor did he grudge his garnered peas, etc. [But cf. invidus, parcus.]

lābōrum dēcipitur (Hor. Od. ii. 13. 38), he is beguiled of his woes.

mē labōrum levās (Pl. Rud. 247), you relieve me of my troubles.

358. The apparent Genitive animī (really Locative) is used with a few verbs and adjectives of feeling and the like:—

Antiphō mē excruciat animī (Ter. Ph. 187), Antipho tortures my mind (me in my mind).

quī pendet animī (Tusc. iv. 36), who is in suspense.

mē animī fallit (Lucr. i. 922), my mind deceives me.

So, by analogy, dēsipiēbam mentis (Pl. Epid. 138), I was out of my head.

aeger animī, sick at heart; cōnfūsus animī, disturbed in spirit.

sānus mentis aut animī (Pl. Trin. 454), sound in mind or heart.

PECULIAR GENITIVES

359. Peculiar Genitive constructions are the following:—
a. A poetical genitive occurs rarely in exclamations, in imitation of the Greek (Genitive of Exclamation):

dī immortālēs, mercimōnī lepidī (Pl. Most. 912), good heavens! what a charming bargain!

foederis heu tacitī (Prop. iv. 7. 21), alas for the unspoken agreement!

SYNTAX: CONSTRUCTION OF CASES
b. The genitive is often used with the ablatives causā, gratiā, for the sake of; ergō, because of; and the indeclinable īnstar, like; also with prīdiē, the day before; postrīdiē, the day after; tenus, as far as:

honōris causā, with due respect (for the sake of honor).

verbī gratiā, for example.

êius lēgis ergō, on account of this law.

equus īnstar montis (Aen. ii. 15), a horse huge as a mountain (the image of a mountain).

laterum tenus (id. x. 210), as far as the sides.

NOTE 1.—Of these the genitive with causā is a development from the possessive genitive and resembles that in nōmen īnsāniae (§ 343. d.). The others are of various origin.

NOTE 2.—In prose of the Republican Period prīdiē and postrīdiē are thus used only in the expressions prīdiē (postrīdiē) êius diēī, the day before (after) that (cf. ``the eve, the morrow of that day''). Tacitus uses the construction with other words: as,— postrīdiē īnsidiārum, the day after the plot. For the accusative, see § 432. a. Tenus takes also the ablative (§ 26).

DATIVE CASE

360. The Dative is probably, like the Genitive, a grammatical case, that is, it is a form appropriated to the expression of a variety of relations other than that of the direct object. But it is held by some to be a Locative with the primary meaning of to or towards, and the poetic uses (like it clāmor caelō, Aen. v. 451) are regarded as survivals of the original use. In Latin the Dative has two classes of meanings:—
1. The Dative denotes an object not as caused by the action, or directly affected by it (like the Accusative), but as reciprocally sharing in the action or receiving it consciously or actively. Thus in dedit puerō librum, he gave the boy a book, or fēcit mihi iniūriam, he did me a wrong, there is the idea of the boy's receiving the book, and of my feeling the wrong. Hence expressions denoting persons, or things with personal attributes, are more likely to be in the dative than those denoting mere things. So in Spainish the dative is used whenever a person is the object of an action; yo veo al hombre, I see [to] the man. This difference between the Accusative and the Dative (i.e. between the Direct and Indirect Object) depends upon the point of view implied in the verb or existing in the mind of the writer. Hence Latin verbs of similar meaning (to an English mind) often differ in the case of their object (see § 367.a).
2. The Dative is used to express the purpose of an action or that for which it serves (see § 382). This construction is especially used with abstract expressions, or those implying an action. These two classes of Datives approach each other in some cases and are occasionally confounded, as in §§ 383,384. The uses of the Dative are the following:— DATIVE OF INDIRECT OBJECT

INDIRECT OBJECT

361. The Dative is used to denote the object indirectly affected by an action. This is called the Indirect Object (§ 274). It is usually denoted in English by the objective with to:—

cēdite temporī, yield to the occasion.

prōvincia Cicerōnī obtigit, the province fell by lot to Cicero.

inimīcīs nōn crēdimus, we do not trust [to] our enemies.

INDIRECT OBJECT WITH TRANSITIVES

362. The Dative of the Indirect Object with the Accusative of the Direct may be used with any transitive verb whose meaning allows (see § 274):—

dō tibi librum, I give you a book.

illud tibi affīrmō (Fam. i. 7. 5), this I assure you.

commendō tibi êius omnia negōtia (id. i. 3), I put all his affairs in your hands (commit them to you).

litterās ā tē mihi stator tuus reddidit (Fam. ii. 17), your messenger delivered to me a letter from you.

a. Many verbs have both a transitive and an intransitive use, and take either the Accusative with the Dative, or the Dative alone:—

mihi id aurum crēdidit (cf. Plaut. Aul. 15), he trusted that gold to me.

equō nē crēdite (Aen. ii. 48), put not your trust in the horse.

concessit senātus postulātiōnī tuae (Mur. 47), the senate yielded to your demand.

concēdere amīcīs quidquid velint (Lael. 38), to grant to friends all that they may wish.

363. Certain verbs implying motion very in their construction between the Dative of the Indirect Object and the Accusative of the End of Motion (§§ 426,427):—
1. Some verbs implying motion take the Accusative (usually with ad or in) instead of the Indirect Object, when the idea of motion prevails:—

litterās quās ad Pompêium scrīpsī (Att. iii. 8. 4), the letter which I have written [and sent] to Pompey. [Cf. nōn quō habērem quod tibi scrīberem (id. iv. 4A), not that I had anything to write to you.]

SYNTAX: CONSTRUCTION OF CASES litterae extemplō Rōmam scrīptae (Liv. xli. 16), a letter was immediately written [and sent] to Rome.

hostīs in fugam dat (B. G. v. 51), he puts the enemy to flight. [Cf. ut mē dem fugae (Att. vii. 23), to take to flight.]

omnēs rem ad Pompêium dēferrī volunt (Fam. i. 1), all wish the matter to be put in the hands of Pompey (referred to Pompey).

2. On the other hand, many verbs of motion usually followed by the Accusative with ad or in, take the Dative when the idea of motion is merged in some other idea:—

mihi litterās mittere (Fam. vii. 12), to send me a letter.

eum librum tibi mīsī (id. vii. 19), I sent you that book.

nec quicquam quod nōn mihi Caesar dētulerit (id. iv. 13), and nothing which Caesar did not communicate to me.

cūrēs ut mihi vehantur (id. viii. 4. 5), take care that they be conveyed to me.

cum alius aliī subsidium ferrent (B. G. ii. 26), while one lent aid to another.

364. Certain verbs may take either the Dative of the Person and the Accusative of the thing, or (in a different sense) the Accusative of the person and the Ablative of the thing¹⁷³:—

dōnat corōnās suīs, he presents wreaths to his men; or,

dōnat suōs corōnīs, he presents his men with wreaths.

vincula exuere sibi (Ov. M. vii. 772), to shake off the leash (from himself).

omnīs armīs exuit (B. G. v. 51), he stripped them all of their arms.

NOTE 1.—Interdīcō, forbid, takes either (1) the Dative of the Person and the Ablative of the thing, or (2) in later writers, the Dative of the person and the Accusative of the thing:—

aquā et īgnī alicui interdīcere, to forbid one the use of fire and water. [The regular formula for banishment.]

interdīxit histriōnibus scaenam (Suet. Dom. 7), he forbade the actors [to appear on] the stage (he prohibited the stage to the actors).

fēminīs (dat.) purpurae ūsū interdīcēmus (Liv. xxxiv. 7), shall we forbid women the wearing of purple?

NOTE 2.—The Dative with the Accusative is used in poetry with many verbs of preventing, protecting, and the like, which usually take the Accusative and Ablative. Interclūdō and prohibeō sometimes take the Dative and Accusative, even in prose:—

hīsce omnīs aditūs ad Sullam interclūdere (Rosc. Am. 110), to shut these men off from all access to Sulla (close to them every approach). [Cf. utī commeātū Caesarem interclūderet (B. G. i. 48), to shut Caesar off from supplies.]

hunc (oestrum) arcēbis pecorī (Georg. iii. 154) you shall keep this away from the flock. [Cf. illum arcuit Galliā (Phil. v. 37), he excluded him from Gaul.] sōlstitum pecorī dēfendite (Ecl. vii. 47), keep the summer heat from the flock. [Cf. utī sē ā contumēliīs inimīcōrum dēfenderet (B. C. i. 22), to defend himself from the slanders of his enemies.]

DATIVE OF INDIRECT OBJECT

365. Verbs which in the active voice take the Accusative and Dative retain the Dative when used in the passive:—

nūntiābantur haec eadem Cūriōnī (B. C. ii. 37), these things were announced to Curio. [Active: nūntiābant (quīdam) haec eadem Cūriōnī.]

nec docendī Caesaris propinquīs êius spatium datur, nec tribūnīs plēbis suī perīculī dēprecandī facultās tribuitur (id. i. 5), no time is given Caesar's relatives to inform him, and no opportunity is granted to the tribunes of the plebs to avert danger from themselves.

prōvinciae prīvātīs dēcernuntur (id. i. 6), provinces are voted to private citizens.

INDIRECT OBJECT WITH INTRANSITIVES

366. The Dative of the Indirect Object may be used with ny Intransitive verb whose meaning allows:—

cēdant arma togae (Phil. ii. 20), let arms give place to the gown.

Caesarī respondet, he replies to Caesar.

Caesarī respondētur, a reply is given to Caesar (Caesar is replied to). [Cf. § 372.]

respondī maximīs crīminibus (Phil. ii. 36), I have answered the heaviest charges.

ut ita cuique ēveniat (id. ii. 119), that it may so turn out to each.

NOTE 1.—Intransitive verbs have no Direct Object. The Indirect Object, therefore, in these cases stands alone as in the second example (but cf. § 362.a).

NOTE 2.—Cēdō, yield, sometimes takes the Ablative of the thing along with the Dative of the person: as,— cēdere alicui possessiōne hortōrum (cf. Mil. 75), to give up to one the possession of a garden.

a. Many phrases consisting of a noun with the copula sum or a copulative verb are equivalent to an intransitive verb and take a kind of indirect object (cf. § 367.a N.^2):—

auctor esse alicui, to advise or instigate one (cf. persuādeō).

quis huic reī testis est (Quinct. 37), who testifies (is witness) to this fact?

is fīnis populātiōnibus fuit (Liv. ii. 30. 9), this put an end to the raids.

b. The dative is sometimes used without a copulative verb in a sense approaching that of the genitive (cf. §§ 367. d,377):—

lēgātus frātrī (Mur. 32), a lieutenant to his brother (i.e. a man assigned to his brother).

ministrī sceleribus (Tac. Ann. vi. 36), agents of crime. [Cf. sēditīonis ministrī (id. i. 17), agents of sedition.]

miseriīs suīs remedium mortem exspectāre (Sall. Cat. 40), to look for death as a cure for their miseries. [Cf. sōlus meārum miseriārumst remedium (Ter. Ad. 294).]

NOTE.—The cases in a and b differ from the construction of § 367.a N.^2 and § 377 in that the dative is more closely connected in idea with some single word to which is serves as an indirect object.
SYNTAX: CONSTRUCTION OF CASES

Indirect Object with Special Verbs

367. Many verbs signifying to favor, help, please, trust, and their contraries; also to believe, persuade, command, obey, serve, resist, envy, threaten, pardon, and spare,¹⁷⁴ take the Dative:—

cūr mihi invidēs, why do you envy me?

mihi parcit atque īgnōscit, he spares and pardons me.

īgnōsce patriō dōlōrī (Liv. iii. 48), excuse a father's grief.

subvenī patriae, opitulāre conlēgae (Fam. x. 10. 2), come to the aid of your contry, help your colleague.

mihi nōn displicet (Clu. 144), it does not displease me.

nōn omnibus serviō (Att. xiii. 49), I am not a servant to every man.

nōn parcam operae (Fam. xiii. 27), I will spare no pains.

sīc mihi persuāsī (Cat. M. 78), so I have persuaded myself.

mihi Fabius dēbēbit īgnōscere sī minus êius fāmae parcere vidēbor quam anteā cōnsuluī (Tull. 3), Fabius will have to pardon me if I seem to spare his reputation less than I have heretofore regarded it.

huic lēgiōnī Caesar cōnfīdēbat maximē (B. G. i. 40. 15), in this legion Caesar trusted most.

In these verbs the Latin retains an original intransitive meaning. Thus: invidēre, to envy, is literally to look askance at; servīre is to be a slave to; suādēre is to make a thing pleasant (sweet) to.

a. Some verbs apparently of the same meanings take the Accusative. Such are iuvō, adiuvō, help; laedō, injure; iubeō, order; dēficiō, fail; dēlectō, please:—

hīc pulvis oculum meum laedit, this dust hirts my eye. [Cf. multa oculīs nocent, many things are injurious to the eyes.]

NOTE 1.—Fīdō and cōnfīdō take also the Ablative (§ 431): as,— multum nātūrā locī cōnfīdēbant (B. G. iii. 9) they had great confidence in the strength of their position.

NOTE 2.—Some common phrases regularly take the dative precisely like verbs of similar meaning. Such are— praestō esse, be at hand (cf. adesse); mōrem gerere, humor (cf. mōrigerārī); grātum facere, do a favor (cf. grātificārī);dictō audiēns esse, be obedient (cf. oboedīre); cui fidem habēbat (B. G. i. 19), in whom he had confidence (cf. cōnfīdēbat). So also many phrases where no corresponding verb exists. Such are—bene (male, pulchrē, aegrē, etc.) esse, be well (ill, etc.) off; iniūriam facere, do injustice to; diem dīcere, bring to trial (name a day for, etc.); agere grātiās, express one's thanks; habēre grātiam, feel thankful; referre grātiam, repay a favor; opus esse, be necessary; damnum dare, inflict an injury; acceptum (expēnsum) ferre (esse), credit (charge); honōrem habēre, to pay honor to.
DATIVE WITH SPECIAL VERBS
b. Some verbs are use transitively with the Accusative or intransitively with the Dative without perceptible difference of meaning. Such are adūor, aemulor, dēspērō, praestōlor, medeor:—

adūlātus est Antōniō (Nep. Att. 8), he flattered Antony.

adūlārī Nerōnem (Tac. Ann. xvi. 19), to flatter Nero.

pācem nōn dēspērās (Att. viii. 15. 3), you do not despair of peace.

salūtī dēspērāre vetuit (Clu. 68), he forbade him to despair of safety.

c. Some verbs are used transitively with the Accusative or intransitively with the Dative with a difference of meaning:—¹⁷⁵

partī cīvium cōnsulunt (Off. i. 85), they consult for a part of the citizens.

cum tē cōnsuluissem (Fam. xi. 29) when I had consulted you.

metuēns puerīs (Plaut. Am. 1113), anxious for the children.

nec matuunt deōs (Ter. Hec. 772) they fear not even the gods. [So also timeō.]

prōspicite patriae (Cat. iv. 3), have regard for the state.

prōspicite sēdem senectūtī (Liv. iv. 49. 14) to provide a habitation for old age. [See also prōvideō.]

d. A few verbal nouns (as īnsidiae, ambush; obtemperātiō , obedience) rarely take the dative like the corresponding verbs:—

īnsidiae cōnsulī (Sall. Cat. 32), the plot against the consul (cf. īnsidior).

obtemperātiō lēgibus (Legg. i. 42), obedience to the laws (cf. obtemperō).

sibi ipsī respōnsiō (De Or. iii. 207), an answer to himself (cf. respondeō).

NOTE.—In these cases the dative depends immediately upon the verbal force of the noun and not on any complex idea (cf § 366 a, b)
.

368. The Dative is used—
1. With the impersonals libet (lubet), it pleases, and licet, it is allowed:—

quod mihi maximē lubet (Fam. i. 8. 3), what most pleases me.

quasi tibi nōn licēret (id. vi. 8), as if you were not permitted.

2. With verbs compounded with satis, bene, and male:—

mihi ipse numquam satisfaciō (Fam. i. 1), I never satify myself.

optimō virō maledīcere (Deiot. 28), to speak ill of a most excellent man.

pulchrum est benefacere reī pūblicae (Sall. Cat. 3), it is a glorious thing to benefit the state.

NOTE.—These are not real compounds, but phrases, and were apparently felt as such by the Romans. Thus—satis officiō meō, satis illōrum voluntatī quī ā mē hōc petīvērunt factum esse arbitrābor (Verr. v. 130), I shall consider that enough has been done for my duty, enough for the wishes of those who asked this of me.
SYNTAX: CONSTRUCTION OF CASES
3. With grātificor, grātulor, nūbō, permittō, plaudō, probō, studeō, supplicō, excellō:—

Pompêiō sē grātificārī putant (Fam. i. 1), they suppose they are doing Pompey a service.

grātulor tibi, mī Balbe (id. vi. 12), I congratulate you, my dear Balbus.

tibi permittō respondēre (N. D. iii. 4), I give you leave to answer.

mihi plaudō ipse domī (Hor. S. i. 1. 66), I applaud myself at home.

cum inimīcī M. Fontêī vōbīs ac populō Rōmanō minentur, amīcī ac propinquī supplicent vōbīs (Font. 35), while the enemies of Marcus Fonteius are threatening you and the Roman people too, while his friends and relatives are beseeching you.

NOTE.—Misceō and iungō sometimes take the dative (see § 413. a. N.). Haereō usually takes the ablative, with or without in, rarely the dative: as,—haerentem capitī corōnam (Hor. S. i. 10. 49), a wreath clinging to the head.

a. The dative is often used by the poets in constructions which would in prose require a noun with a preposition. So especially with verbs of contending (§ 413. b):—

contendis Homērō (Prop. i. 7. 3), you vie with Homer. [In prose: cum Homērō.]

placitōne etiam pūgnābis amōrī (Aen. iv. 38), will you struggle even against a love that pleases you?

tibi certat (Ecl. v. 8), vies with you. [tēcum.]

differt sermōnī (Hor. S. i. 4. 48), differs from prose. [ā sermōne, § 401.]

laterī abdidit ēnsem (Aen. ii. 553), buried the sword in his side. [in latere, § 430.]

For the Dative instead of ad with the Accusative, see § 428. h.

369. Some verbs ordinarily intransitive may have an Accusative of the direct object along with the Dative of the indirect (cf. § 362. a):—

cui cum rēx crucem minārētūr (Tusc. i. 102), and when the king threatened him with the cross.

Crētēnsibus obsidēs imperāvīt (Manil. 35), he exacted hostages of the Cretans.

Ascaniōnē pater Rōmānās invidet arcēs (Aen. iv. 234), does the father envy Ascanius his Roman citadels? [With invideō this construction is poetic or late.]

a. With the passive voice this dative may be retained:—

quī iam nunc sanguinem meum sibi indulgērī aequum cēnset (Liv. xl. 15. 16), who even now thinks it right that my blood should be granted to him as a favor.

singulīs cēnsōribus dēnāriī trecentī imperātī sunt (Verr. ii. 137), three hundred denarii were exacted of each censor.

Scaevolae concessa est fācundiae virtūs (Quint. xii. 3. 9), to Scaevola has been granted excellence in oratory.

DATIVE WITH COMPOUNDS

Indirect Object with Compounds

370. Many verbs compounded with ad, ante, con, in, inter, ob, post, prae, prō, sub, super, and some with circum, admit the Dative of the indirect object:—

neque enim adsentior eīs (Lael. 13), for I do not agree with them.

quantum nātūra hominis pecudibus antecēdit (Off. i. 105), so far as man's nature is superior to brutes.

sī sibi ipse cōnsentit (id. i. 5), if he is in accord with himself.

virtūtēs semper voluptātibus inhaerent (Fin. i. 68), virtues are always connected with pleasures.

omnibus negōtiīs nōn interfuit sōlum sed praefuit (id. i. 6), he not only had a hand in all matters, but took the lead in them.

tempestātī obsequī artis est (Fam. i. 9. 21), it is a point of skill to yield to the weather.

nec umquam succumbet inimīcīs (Deiot. 36), and he will never yield to his foes.

cum et Brūtus cuilibet ducum praeferendus vidērētur et Vatīnius nūllī nōn esset postferendus (Vell. ii. 69), since Brutus seemed worthy of being put before any of the generals and Vatinius deserved to be put after all of them.

a. In these cases the dative depends not on the preposition, but on the compound verb in its acquired meaning. Hence, if the acquired meaning is not suited to an indirect object, the original construction of the simple verb remains. Thus in convocat suōs, he calls his men together, the idea of calling is not so modified as to make an indirect object appropriate. So hominem interficere, to make away with a man (kill him). But in praeficere imperātōrem bellō, to put a man as commander-in-chief in charge of a war, the idea resulting from the composition is suited to an indirect object (see also b, §§ 371, 388. b).
NOTE 1.—Some of these verbs, being originally transitive, take also a direct object: as,—nē offerāmus nōs perīculīs (Off. i. 83), it that we may not expose ourselves to perils.

NOTE 2.—The construction of § 370 is not so different in its nature from that of §§ 362, 366, and 367; but the compound verbs make a convenient group.

b. Some compounds of ad, ante, ob, with a few others, have acquired a transitive meaning, and take the accusative (cf. § 388. b):—¹⁷⁶

nōs oppūgnat (Fam. i. 1), he opposes us.

quis audeat bene comitātum aggredī (Phil. xii. 25), who would dare encounter a man well attended?

mūnus obīre (Lael. 7), to attend to a duty.

SYNTAX: CONSTRUCTION OF CASES
c. The adjective obvius and the adverb obviam with a verb take the dative:—

sī ille obvius eī futūrus nōn erat (Mil. 47), if he was not intending to get in his way.

mihi obviam vēnisti (Fam. ii. 16. 3), you came to meet me.

371. When place or motion is distinctly thought of, the verbs mentioned in § 370 regularly take a noun with a preposition:

inhaeret in visceribus (Tusc. iv. 24), it remains fixed in the vitals.

homine coniūnctō mēcum (Tull. 4), a man united to me.

cum hōc concurrit ipse Eumenēs (Nep. Eum. 4. 1), with him Eumenes himself engages in combat (runs together).

īnserite oculōs in cūriam (Font. 43), fix your eyes on the senate-house.

īgnis quī est ob ōs offūsus (Tim. 14), the fire which is diffused before the sight.

obicitur contrā istōrum impetūs Macedonia (Font. 44), Mecadonia is set to withstand their attacks. [Cf. sī quis vōbis error obiectus (Caec. 5), if any mistake has been caused you.]

in segetem flamma incidit (Aen. ii. 304), the fire falls upon the standing corn.

NOTE.—But the usage varies in different authors, in different words, and often in the same word and the same sense. The Lexicon must be consulted for each verb.

372. Intransitive verbs that govern the dative are used impersonally in the passive (§ 208. d). The dative is retained (cf. § 365):

cui parcī potuit (Liv. xxi. 14), who could be spared?

nōn modo nōn invidētur illī aetātī vērum etiam favētur (Off. ii. 45), that age (youth) not only is envied, but is even favored.

temporī serviendum est (Fam. ix. 7), we must serve the exigency of the occasion.

NOTE.—In poetry the personal construction is sometimes found: as,—cūr invideor (Hor. A. P. 56), why am I envied?

Dative of Possession

373. The Dative is used with esse and similar words to denote Possession:—

est mihi domī pater (Eccl. iii.33), I have a father at home (there is to me).

hominī cum deō similitūdō est (Legg. i. 25), man has a likeness to God.

quibus opēs nūllae sunt (Sall. Cat. 37), [those] who have no wealth.

NOTE.—The Genitive or a Possessive with esse emphasizes the possessor; the Dative, the fact of possession: as,—liber est meus, the book is MINE (and no one's else); est mihi liber, I HAVE a book (among other things).

a. With nōmen est, and similar expressions, the name is often put in the Dative by a kind of apposition with the person; but the Nominatuve us also common:— DATIVE OF THE AGENT

(1) cui Āfricānō fuit cōgnōmen (Liv. xxv. 2), whose (to whom) surname was Africanus.

puerō ab inopiā Egeriō inditum nōmen (id. i. 34), the name Egerius was given the boy from his poverty.

(2) puerō nōmen est Mārcus, the boy's name is Marcus (to the boy is, etc.).

cui nōmen Arethūsa (Verr. iv. 118), [a fount] called Arethusa.

NOTE.—In early Latin the dative is usual; Cicero prefers the nominative, Livy the dative; Sallust uses the dative only. In later Latin the genitive also occurs (cf. § 343. d): as,—Q. Metellō Macedonicī nōmen inditum est (Vell. i. 11), to Quintus Metellus the name of Macedonius was given.

b. Dēsum takes the dative; so occasionally absum (which regularly has the ablative):—

hōc ūnum Caesarī dēfuit (B. G. iv. 26), this only was lacking to Caesar.

quid huic abesse poterit (De Or. i. 48), what can be wanting to him?

Dative of the Agent

374. The Dative of the Agent is used with the Gerundive to denote the person on whom the necessity rests:—

haec vōbīs prōvincia est dēfendenda (Manil. 14), this province is for you to defend (to be defended by you).

mihi est pūgnandum, I have to fight (i.e. the need of fighting is to me: cf. mihi est liber, I have a book, § 373. N.).

a. This is the regular way of expressing the agent with the Second or Passive Periphrastic Conjugation (§ 196).
NOTE 1.—The Ablative of the Agent with ab (§ 405) is sometimes used with the Second Periphrastic Cobjugation when the Dative would be ambiguous or when a stronger expression is desired:—

quibus est ā vōbīs cōnsulendam (Manil. 6), for whom you must consult. [Here two datives, quibus and vōbīs, would have been ambiguous.]

rem ab omnibus vōbīs prōvidendam (Rabir. 4), that the matter must be attended to by all of you. [The dative might mean for all of you.]

NOTE 2.—The Dative of the Agent is either a special case of the Dative of Possession or a development of the Dative of Reference (§ 376).

375. The Dative of the Agent is common with perfect participles (especially when used in an adjective sense), but rare with other parts of the verb:—

mihi dēlīberātum et cōnstitūtum est (Leg. Agr. i. 25), I have deliberated and resolved (it has been deliberated by me).

mihi rēs prōvīsa est (Verr. iv. 91), the matter has been provided for by me.

sīc dissimillimīs bēstiolīs commūniter cibus quaeritur (N. D. ii. 123), so by very different creatures food is sought in common.

SYNTAX: CONSTRUCTION OF CASES
a. The Dative of the Agent is used by the poets and later writers with almost any verb:—

neque cernitur ūllī (Aen. i. 440), nor is seen by any.

fēlīx est dicta sorōrī (Ov. Fast. iii. 1. 597), she was called happy by her sister.

Aelia Paetina Narcissō fovēbātur (Tac. Ann. xii. 1), Ælia Pœtina was favored by Narcissus.

b. The dative of the person who sees or thinks is regularly used after videor, seem:—

vidētur mihi it seems (or seems good) to me.

dīs aliter vīsum [est] (Aen. ii. 428), it seemed otherwise to the gods.

videor mihi perspicere ipsīus animum (Fam. iv. 13. 5), I seem (to myself) to see the soul of the man himself.

NOTE.—The verb probāre, approve (originally a mercantile word), takes a Dative of Reference (§ 376), which has become so firmly attached that it is often retained with the passive, seemingly as Dative of Agent:—

haec sententia et illī et nōbīs probābātur (Fam. i. 7. 5), this view met both his approval and mind (was made acceptable to both him and to me).

hōc cōnsilium plērīsque nōn probābātur (B.C. i. 72), this plan was not approved by the majority. [But also, cōnsilium ā cūnctīs probābātur (id. i. 74).]

Dative of Reference

376. The Dative often depends, not on any particular word, but on the general meaning of the sentence (Dative of Reference). The dative in this construction is often called the Dative of Advantage or Disadvantage,¹⁷⁷ as denoting the person or thing for whose benefit or to whose prejudice the action is performed.

tibi arās (Plaut. Merc. 71), you plough for yourself.

tuās rēs tibi habētō (Plaut. Trin. 266), keep your goods to yourself (formula of divorce).

laudāvit mihi frātrem, he praised my brother (out of regard for me; laudāvit frātrem meum would imply no such motive).

meritōs mactāvit honōrēs, taurum Neptūnō, taurum tibi, pulcher Apollō (Aen. iii. 118), he offered the sacrifices due, a bull to Neptune, a bull to thee, beautiful Apollo.

NOTE.—In this construction the meaning of the sentence is complete without the dative, which is not, as in the preceeding constructions, closely connected with any single word. Thus the Dative of Reference is easily distinguishable in most instances even when the sentence consists of only two words, as in the first example.

377. The Dative of Reference is often used to qualify a whole idea, instead of the Possessive Genitive modifying a single word: DATIVE OF REFERENCE

iter Poenīs vel corporibus suīs obstruere (Cat. M. 75), to block the march of the Carthaginians even with their own bodies (to block, etc., for the disadvantage of, etc.).

sē in cōnspectum nautīs dedit (Verr. v. 86), he put himself in sight of the sailors (he put himself to the sailors into sight).

versātur mihi ante oculōs (id. v. 123), it comes before my eyes (it comes to be before the eyes).

378. The Dative is used of the person from whose point of view an opinion is stated or a situation is defined. This is often called the Dative of the Person Judging¹⁷⁸, but is merely a weakened variety of the Dative of Reference. It is used— 1. Of the mental point of view (in my opinion, according to me, etc.):—

Platō mihi ūnus īnstar est centum mīlium (Brut. 191), in my opinion (to me) Plato alone is worth a hundred thousand.

erit ille mihi semper deus (Ecl. i. 7), he will always be a god to me (in my regard).

quae est ista servitūs tam clārō hōminī (Par. 41), what is that slavery according to the view of this distinguished man?

2. Of the local point of view (as you go in etc.). In this use the person is commonly denoted indefinitely by a participle in the dative plural:—

oppidum prīmum Thessaliae venientibus ab Ēpīrō (B.C. iii. 80), the first town of Thessaly as you come from Epirus (to those coming, etc.).

laevā parte sinum intrantī (Liv. xxvi. 26), on the left as you sail up the gulf (to one entering).

est urbe ēgressīs tumulus (Aen. ii. 713), there is, as you come out of the city, a mound (to those having come out).

NOTE.—The Dative of the Person Judging is (by a Greek idiom) rarely modified by nōlēns, vōlēns (participles of nōlō, vōlō), or by some similar word:—

ut quibusque bellum invītīs aut cupientibus erat (Tac. Ann. i. 59), as each might receive the war reluctantly or gladly.

ut mīlītibus labōs volentibus esset (Iug. 100), that the soldiers might assume the task willingly.

379. The Dative of Reference is used idiomatically without any verb in colloquial questions and exclamations:—

quō mihi fortūnam (Hor. Ep. i. 5. 12), of what use to me is fortune?

unde mihī lapidem (Hor. S. ii. 7. 116), where can I get a stone?

quō tibi, Tillī (id. i. 6. 24), what use for you, Tillius?

SYNTAX: CONSTRUCTION OF CASES
a. The dative of reference is sometimes used after interjections:

ei (hei) mihi (Aen. ii. 274), ah me!

vae victīs (Liv. v. 48), woe to the conquered.

em tibi, there, take that (there for you)! [Cf. § 380.]

NOTE.—To express FOR—meaning instead of, in defence of, in behalf of—the ablative with prō is used:—

prō patriā morī (Hor. Od. iii. 2. 13), to die for one's country.

ego ībō prō tē (Plaut. Most. 1131), I will go instead of you.

Ethical Dative

380. The Dative of the Personal Pronouns is used to show a certain interest felt by the person indicated¹⁷⁹ This construction is called the Ethical Dative.¹⁸⁰ It is really a faded variety of the Dative of Reference.

quod mihi Celsus agit (Hor. Ep. i. 3. 15), pray what is Celsus doing?

suō sibi servit patrī (Plaut. Capt. 5), he serves his own father.

at tibi repente venit mihi Canīnius (Fam. ix. 2), but, look you, of a sudden comes to be Caninius.

hem tibi talentum argentī (Pl. Trunc. 60), hark ye, a talent of silver.

quit tibi vīs, what would you have (what do you wish for yourself)?

Dative of Separation

381. Many verbs of taking away and the like take the Dative (especially of a person) instead of the Ablative of Separation (§ 401). Such are compounds of ab, dē, ex, and a few of ad:—

aureum eī dētrāxit amicilum (N. D. iii. 83), he took from him his cloak of gold.

hunc mihi terrōrem ēripe (Cat. i. 18), take from me this terror.

vītam adulēscentibus vīs aufert (Cat. M. 71), violence deprives young men of life.

nihil enim tibi dētrāxit senātus (Fam. i. 5 B), for the senate has taken nothing from you.

nec mihi hunc errōrem extorquērī volō (Cat. M. 85), nor do I wish this error wrested from me.

NOTE.—The Dative of Separation is a variety of the Dative of Reference. It represents the action as done to the person or thing, and is this more vivid than the Ablative.
DATIVE OF THE PURPOSE OR END
a. The distinct idea of motion requires the ablative with a preposition—thus generally with names of things (§ 426.1):—

illum ex periculō ēripuit (B. G. iv. 12), he dragged him out of danger.

NOTE.—Sometimes the dative of the person and the ablative of the thing with a preposition are both used with the same verb: as,—mihi praeda dē manibus ēripitur (Verr. ii. 1. 142), the booty is wrested from my hands.

Dative of the Purpose or End

382. The Dative is used to denote the Purpose or End, often with another Dative of the person or thing affected. This use of the dative, once apparently general, remains in only a few constructions, as follows:—
1. The dative of an abstract noun is used to show that for which a thing serves or which is accomplishes, often with another dative of the person or thing affected:—

reī pūblicae clādisunt (Iug. 85. 43), they are ruin to the state (they are for a disaster to the state).

māgnō ūsuī nostrīs fuit (B. G. iv. 25), it was of great service to our men (to our men for great use).

tertiam aciem nōstrīs subsidiō mīsit (id. i. 52), he sent the third line as a relief to our men.

suīs salūtī fuit (id. vii. 50), he was the salvation of his men.

ēvēnit facile quod dīs cordī esset (Liv. i. 39), that came to pass easily which was desired by the gods (was for a pleasure [lit. heart] to the gods).

NOTE 1.—This construction is often called the Dative of Service, or the Double Dative construction. The verb is usually sum. The noun expressing the end for which is regularly abstract and singular in number and is never modified by an adjective, except one of degree (māgnus, minor, etc.), or by a genitive.

NOTE 2.—The word frūgī used as an adjective is a dative of this kind:—

cōgis mē dīcere inimīcum Frūgī (Font. 39), you compel me to call my enemy Honest.

hominēs satis fortēs et plānē frūgī (Verr. iii. 67), men brave enough and thoroughly honest. Cf. erō frūgī bonae (Plaut. Pseud. 468), I will be good for something. [See § 122. b.]

2. The Dative of Purpose of concrete nouns is used in prose in a few military expressions, and with freedom in poetry:—

locum castrīs dēligit (B. G. vii. 16), he selects a site for a camp.

receptuī canere, to sound a retreat (for a retreat).

receptuī sīgnum (Phil. xiii. 15), the signal for retreat.

optāvit locum rēgnō (Aen. iii. 109), he chose a place for a kingrom.

locum īnsidiīs circumspectāre (Liv. xxi. 53), to look about for a place for an ambush. [Cf. locum sēditiōnis quaerere (id. iii. 46).]

For the Dative of the Gerundive denoting Purpose, see § 505. b. SYNTAX: CONSTRUCTION OF CASES

Dative with Adjectives

383. The Dative is used after Adjectives or Adverbs, to denote that to which the given quality is directed, for which it exists, or towards which it tends.
NOTE.—The dative with certain adjectives is in origin a Dative of Purpose or End.

384. The Dative is used with adjectives (and a few Adverbs) of fitness, nearness, likeness, service, inclination, and their opposites:¹⁸¹

nihil est tam nātūrae aptum (Lael. 17), nothing is so fitted to nature.

nihil difficile amantī putō (Or. 33), I think nothing hard to a lover.

castrīs idōneum locum dēlēgit (B. G. i. 49), he selected a place suitable for a camp.

tribūnī nōbīs sunt amīcī (Q. Fr. i. 2. 16), the tribunes are friendly to us.

esse propitius potest nēminī (N. D. i. 124), he can be gracious to nobody.

māgnīs autem virīs prosperae semper omnēs rēs (id. ii. 167), but to great men everything is always favorable.

sēdēs huic nostrō nōn importūna sermōnī (De Or. iii. 18), a place not unsuitable for this conversation of ours.

cui fundō erat affīnis M. Tullius (Tull. 14), to which estate Marcus Tullius was next neighbor.

convenienter nātūrae vīvere (Off. iii. 13), to live in accordance with nature (ὁμολογουμένως τ~ -4πτη|, φύσει).

NOTE 1.—So, also, in poetic and colloquial use, with īdem: as,—invītum quī servat idem facit occīdentī (Hor. A. P. 467), he who saves a man against his will does the same as one who kills him.

NOTE 2.—Adjectives of likeness are often followed by atque (ac), as. So also the adverbs aequē, pariter, similiter, etc. The pronoun īdem has regularly atque or a relative:—

sī parem sapientam habet ac formam (Plaut. Mil. 1251), if he has sense equal to his beauty (like as his beauty).

tē suspicor eīsdem rēbus quibus mē ipsum commovērī (Cat. M. 1), I suspect you are disturbed by the same things by which I am.

385. Other constructions are sometimes found where the dative might be expected:—
a. Adjectives of fitness or use take oftener the Accusative with ad to denote the purpose or end; but regularly the Dative of persons:—

aptus ad rem mīlitārem, fit for a soldier's duty.

locus ad īnsidiās aptior (Mil. 53), a place fitter for lying in wait.

nōbīs ūtile est ad hanc rem (cf. Ter. And. 287), it is of use to us for this thing.

DATIVE WITH ADJECTIVES
b. Adjectives and nouns of inclination and the like may take the Accusative with in or ergā:—

cōmis in uxōrem (Hor. Ep. ii. 2. 133), kind to his wife.

dīvīna bonitās ergā hominēs (N. D. ii. 60), the divine goodness towards men.

dē benevolentiā quam quisque habeat ergā nōs (Off. i. 47), in regard to each man's good will which he has towards us.

grātiōrem mē esse in tē (Fam. xi. 10), that I am more grateful to you.

c. Some adjectives of likeness, nearness, belonging, and a few others, ordinarily requiring the Dative, often take the Possessive Genitive:—¹⁸²

quod ut illī proprium ac perpetuum sit … optāre dēbētis (Manil. 48), which you ought to pray may be secure (his own) and lasting to him. [Dative.]

fuit hōc quondam proprium populī Rōmānī (id. 32), this was once the peculiar characteristic fo the Roman people. [Genitive.]

cum utrīque sīs maximē necessārius (Att. ix. 7A), since you are especially bound to both. [Dative.]

prōcurātor aequē utrīusque necessārius (Qunict. 86), an agent alike closely connected with both. [Genitive.]

1. The genitive is especially used with these adjectives when they are used wholly or approximately as nouns:—

amīcus Cicerōnī, friendly to Cicero. But, Cicerōnis amīcius, a friend of Cicero; and even, Cicerōnis amicissimus, a very great friend of Cicero.

crēticus et êius aequālis paean (Or. 215), the cretic and its equivalent the paean.

hī erant affīnēs istīus (Verr. ii. 36), these were this man's fellows.

2. After similis, like, the genitive is more common in early writers. Cicero regularly uses the genitive of persons, and either the genitive or the dative of things. With personal pronouns the genitive is regular (meī, tuī, etc.), and also in vērī similis, probable:—

dominī similis es (Ter. Eun. 496), you're like your master (your master's like).

ut essēmus similēs deōrum (N. D. i. 91), that we might be like the gods.

est similis mâiōrum suom (Ter. Ad. 411), he's like his ancestors.

partis similis esse (Off. i. 121), to be like his father.

sīmia quam similis turpissima bēstia nōbīs (N. D. i. 97, quoted from Enn.), how like us is that wretched beast the ape!

sī enim hōc illī simile sit, est illud huic (id. i. 90), for if this is like that, that is like this.

NOTE.—The genitive in this construction is not objective like those in § 349, but possessive (cf. § 343).
For the dative of Accusative with propior, proximus, propius, proximē, see § 432. a. SYNTAX: CONSTRUCTION OF CASES

ACCUSATIVE CASE

386. The Accusative originally served to connect the noun more or less loosely with the verb-idea, whether expressed by a verb proper or by a verbal noun or adjective. Its earliest use was perhaps to repeat the verb idea as in the Cognate Accuastive (run a race, fight a battle, see § 390). From this it would be a short step to the Factitive Accusative (denoting the result of an act, as in make a table, drill a hole, cf. § 273.N.^1). From this last could easily come the common accusative (of Affecting, break a table, plug a hole, see § 387. a). Traces of all these uses appear in the language, and the loose connection of noun with verb idea is seen in the use of stems in composition (cf. § 265)¹⁸³. It is impossible, however, to derive the various constructions of the accusative with certainty from any single function of that case. The uses of the accusative may be classified as follows: 1. Directly affected by the Action (§387. a). Thing produced (§387. a). I. Primary Object: 2. Effect of the Action Cognate Accusative (§390). 1. Predicate Accusative (Of Naming etc.) II. Two Accusatives: 2. Of Asking or Teaching (§396). 3. Of Concealing (§306. a). 1. Adverbial (§397. a). 2. Of Specification (Greek Accusative) (§397.b.) II. Idiomatic Uses: 3. Of Extent and Duration (§§ 423, 425). 4. Of Exclamation (§397. a). 5. Subject of Infinitive (§397. e).

Direct Object

387. The Direct Object of a transitive verb is put in the Accusative (§274).
a. The Accusative of the Direct Object denotes (1) that which is directly affected, or (2) that which is caused or produced by the action of the verb:—

(1) Brūtus Caesarem interfecit, Brutus killed Cæsar.

(2) aedem facere, to make a temple. [Cf. proelium pūgnāre, to fight a battle, §390.]

NOTE.—There is no definite line by which transitive verbs can be distinguished from intransitive. Verbs which usually take a direct object (expressed or implied) are called transitive, but many of these are often used intransitively or absolutely. Thus timeō, I fear, is transitive in the sentence inimīcum timeō, I fear my enemy, but intransitive (absolute) in nōlī timēre, don't be afraid. Again, many verbs are transitive in one sense and intransitive in another: as,— Helvētiōs superāvērunt Rōmānī, the Romans overcame the Helvetians; but nihil superābat, nothing remained (was left over). So also many verbs commonly intransitive may be used transitively with a slight change of meaning: as,— rīdēs, you are laughing; but mē rīdēs, you're laughing at me.
ACCUSATIVE OF DIRECT OBJECT
b. The object of a transitive verb in the active voice becomes its subject in the passive, and is put in the nominative (§275):

Brūtus Caesarem interfecit, Brutus killed Cæsar.

Caesar ā Brūtō interfectus est, Caesar was killed by Brutus.

domum aedificat, he builds a house.

domus aedificātur, the house is building (being built).

388. Certain special verbs require notice.
a. Many verbs apparently intransitive, expressing feeling, take an accusative, and may be used in the passive:—

meum cāsum lūctumque doluērunt (Sest. 145), they grieved at my calamity and sorrow.

sī nōn Acrisium rīsissent Iuppiter et Venus (Hor. Od. iii. 16.5), if Jupiter and Venus had not laughed at Acrisius.

rīdētur ab omnī conventū (Her. S. i. 7.22), he is laughed at by the whole assembly.

For the Cognate Accusative with verbs of taste, smell, and the like, see §390. a.
NOTE.—Some verbs commonly intransitive may be used transitively (especially in poetry) from a similarity of meaning with other verbs that take the accusative:—

gemēns īgnōminiam (Georg. iii. 226), groaning at the disgrace. [Cf. doleō.]

festināre fugam (Aen. iv. 575), to hasten their flight. [Cf. accelerō.]

cōmptōs ārsit crinis (Hor. Od. iv. 9.13), she burned with love for his well-combed locks. [Cf. adamō.]

b. Verbs of motion, compounds of circum, trāns, and praeter, and a few others, frequently become transitive, and take the accusative (cf. §370. b):—

mortem obīre, to die (to meet death).

cōnsulātum ineunt (Liv. ii. 28), they enter vpon the consulship.

nēminem convēnī (Fam. ix. 14), I met no one.

sī īnsulam adīsset (B. G. iv. 20), if he should go to the island.

trānsīre flūmen (id. ii. 23), to cross the river (cf. §395).

cīvēs quī circumstant senātum (Cat. i. 21), the citizens who stand about the senate.

NOTE.—Among such verbs are some compounds of ad, in, per, and sub.

c. The accusative is used after the impersonals decet, dēdecet, dēlectat, iuvat, oportet, fallit, fugit, praeterit:—

ita ut vōs decet (Plaut. Most. 729), so as befits you.

mē pedibus dēlectat clandere verba (Hor. S. ii. 1. 28), my delight is (it pleases me) to arrange words in measure.

nisi mē fallit, unless I am mistaken (unless it deceives me).

iūvit mē tibi tuās litterās prōfuisse (Fam. v.21.3), it pleased me that your literary studies had profited you.

tē nōn praeterit (Fam. i. 8.2), it does not escape your notice.

SYNTAX: CONSTRUCTION OF CASES
NOTE 1.—So after latet in poetry and post-classical prose: as,— latet plērōsque (Plin. N. H. ii. 82), it is unknown to most persons.

NOTE 2.—These verbs are merely ordinary transitives with an idiomatic signification. Hence most of them are also used personally.

NOTE 3.—Decet and latet sometimes take the dative :

ita nōbīs decet (Ter. Ad. 928), thus it befits us.

hostīque Rōma latet (Sil. It. xii. 614), and Rome lies hidden from the foe.

d. A few verbs in isolated expressions take the accusative from a forcing of their meaning. Such expressions are:—

ferīre foedus, to strike a treaty (i.e. to sanction by striking down a victim).

vincere iūdicium (sponsiōnem, rem, hōc), to prevail on a trial, etc. [As if the case were a difficulty to overcome; cf. vincere iter, Aen. vi. 688.]

aequor nāvigāre (Aen. I. 67), to sail the sea. [As if it were trānsīre, §388. b.]

maria aspera iūrō (id. vi. 351), I swear by the rough seas (cf. id. vi. 324.) [The accusative with verbs of swearing is chiefly poetic.]

noctīs dormīre, to sleep [whole] nights (to spend in sleep).

NOTE 1.—These accusatives are of various kinds. The last example approach the cognate construction (cf. the second example under §390).

NOTE 2.—In early and popular usage some nouns and adjectives derived from transitive verbs retain verbal force sufficient to govern the accusative:—

quid tibi istanc tactiō est (Plaut. Poen. 1308), what business have you to touch her? [Cf. tangō.]

mīrābundī bēstiam (Ap. Met. iv. 16), full of wonder at the creature. [Cf. mīror.]

vītābundus castra (Liv. xxv. 13), trying to avoid the camp. [Cf. vītō.]

389. Many verbs ordinarily transitive may be used absolutely, having their natural object in the ablative with dē (§273. N. 2):—

priusquam Pompōnius dē êius adventū cōgnōsceret (B. C. iii. 101), before Pomponius could learn of his coming. [Cf. êius adventū cōgnitō, his arrival being discovered.]

For Accusative and Genitive after Impersonals, see §354. b. For the Accusative after the impersonal Gerundive with esse, see §500.3.

Cognate Accusative

390. An intransitive verb often takes the Accusative of a noun of kindred meaning, usually modified by an adjective or in some other manner. This construction is called the Cognate Accusative or Accusative of Kindred Signification:—

tūtiōrem vītam vīvere (Verr. ii. 118), to live a safer life.

tertiam iam aetātem hominum vīvēbat (Cat. M. 31), he was now living the third generation of men.

servitūtem servīre, to be in slavery.

coīre societātem, to [go together and] form an alliance.

COGNATE ACCUSATIVE
a. Verbs of taste, smell, and the like take a cognate accusative of the quality:—

vinum redolēns (Phil. ii. 63), smelling [of] wine.

herbam mella sapiunt (Pun. H. N. xi. 15), the honey tastes [of] grass.

olēre malitiam (Rosc. Corn. 20), to have the odor of malice.

Cordubae nātīs poētīs, pingue quiddam sonantibus atque peregrīnum (Arch. 26), to poets born at Cordova, whose speech had a somewhat thick and foreign accent.

b. The cognate accusative is often loosely used by the poets:—

huic errōrī similem [errōrem] īnsānīre (Hor. S. ii. 3.62), to suffer a delusion like this.

saltāre Cyclōpa (id. I. 5.63), to dance the Cyclops (represent in dancing).

Bacchānālia vivere (Iuv. ii. 3), to live in revellings.

Amaryllida resonāre (Ed. i. 5), to reëcho [the name of] Amaryllis.

intonuit laevum (Aen. ii. 693), it thundered on the left.

dulce rīdentem, dulce loquentem (Hor. Od. i. 22.23), sweetly smiling, sweetly prattling.

acerba tuēns (Aen. ix. 794), looking fiercely. [Cf. Eng. "to look daggers."]

torvum clāmat (id. vii. 399), he cries harshly.

c. A neuter pronoun or an adjective of indefinite meaning is very common as cognate accusative (cf. §§214. d, 397. a.):—

Empedoclēs multa alia peccat (N. D. 1.29), Empedocles commits many other errors.

ego illud adsentior Theophrastō (De Or. iii. 184), in this I agree with Theophrastus.

multum tē ista fefellit opīniō (Verr. ii.1.88), you were much deceived in this expectation (this expectation deceived you much).

plūs valeō, I have more strength.

plūrimum potest, he is strongest.

quid mē ista laedunt (Leg. Agr. ii.82), what harm do those things do me?

hōc tē moneō, I give you this warning (cf. d. N. 1).

id laetor, I rejoice at this (Cf. d. N. 1).

quid moror, why do I delay?

quae hominēs arant, nāvigant, aedificant (Sall. Cat. ii. 7), what men do in ploughing, sailing, and building.

d. So in many common phrases:—

sī quid ille sē velit (B.G. i.34), if he should want anything of him (if he should want him in anything).

numquid, Geta, aliud mē vīs (Ter. Ph. 151), can I do anything more for you, Geta (there is nothing you want of me, is there)? [A common form of leave-taking.]

quid est quod, etc., why is it that, etc.? [Cf. hōc erat quod (Aen. ii. 664), was it for this that, etc.?]

SYNTAX: CONSTRUCTION OF CASES
NOTE 1.—In these cases substantives with a definite meaning would be in some other construction:

in hōc eōdem peccat, he errs in this same point.

bonīs rēbus laetārī, to rejoice at prosperity. [Also: in, dē, or ex.]

dē testāmentō monēre, to remind one of the will. [Later: genitive, §351.]

officī admonēre, to remind one of his duty. [Also: dē officiō.]

NOTE 2.—In some of these cases the connection of the accusative with the verb has so faded out that the words have become real adverbs: as,— multum, plūs, plūrimum; plērumque, for the most part, generally; cēterem, cētera, for the rest, otherwise, but; prīmum, first; nihil, by no means, not at all; aliquid, somewhat; quid, why; facile, easily. So in the comparative of adverbs (§218). But the line cannot be sharply drawn, some of the examples under b may be classed as adverbial.

TWO ACCUSATIVES

391. Some transitive verbs take a second accusative in addition to their Direct Object. This second accusative is either (1) a Predicate Accusative (2) a Secondary Object.

Predicate Accusative

392. An accusative in the Predicate referring to the same person or thing as the Direct Object, but not in apposition with it, is called a Predicate Accusative.

393. Verbs of naming, choosing, appointing, making, esteeming, showing, and the like, may take a Predicate Accusative along with the direct object:—

ō Spartace, quem enim tē potius appellem (Phil. xiii. 22), 0 Spartacus, for what else shall I call you (than Spartacus)?

Cicerōnem cōnsulem creāre, to elect Cicero consul.

mē augurem nōmināvērunt (Phil. ii. 4), they nominated me for augur.

cum grātiās ageret quod sē cōnsulem fēcisset (De Or. ii. 268), when he thanked him because he had made him consul (supported his candidacy).

hominem prae sē nēminem putāvit (Rosc. Am. 135), he thought nobody a man in comparison with himself.

ducem sē praebuit (Vat. 38), he offered himself as a leader.

NOTE.—The predicate accusative may be an adjective: as,—hominēs mītīs reddidit et mānsuētōs (Inv. i. 2), has made men mild and gentle.

a. In changing from the active voice to the passive, the Predicate Accusative becomes Predicate Nominative (§284):

rēx ab suīs appellātur (B. G. viii. 4), he is called king by his subjects. [Active: suī eum rēgem appellant.]

ACCUSATIVE OF THE SECONDARY OBJECT

Secondary Object

394. The Accusative of the Secondary Object is used (along with the direct object) to denote something more remotely affected by the action of the verb.

395. Transitive verbs compounded with prepositions sometimes take (in addition to the direct object) a Secondary Object, originally governed by the preposition:—

Caesar Germānōs flūmen trāicit (B.C. i. 83), Caesar throws the Germans across the river.

idem iūs iūrandum adigit Afrānium (id. 1.76), he exacts the same oath from Afranius.

quōs Pompêius omnia sua praesidia circumdūxit (id. iii. 61), whom Pompey conducted through all his garrison.

NOTE 1.—This construction is common only with trādūcō, trāiciō, and trānsportō. The preposition is sometimes repeated with compounds of trāns, and usually with compounds of the other prepositions. The ablative is also used:—

dōnec rēs suās trāns Halyn flūmen trāicerent (Liv. xxxviii. 25), till they should get their possessions across the river Halys.

(exercitus) Padō trāiectus Cremōnam (id. xxi. 56), the army was conveyed across the Po to Cremona (by way of the Po, §429. a).

NOTE 2.—The secondary object may be retained with a passive verb: as,—Belgae Rhēnum trāductī sunt (B.G. ii. 4), the Belgians were led over the Rhine.

NOTE 3.—The double construction indicated in § 395 is possible only when the force of the preposition and the force of the verb are each distinctly felt in the compound, the verb governing the direct, and the preposition the secondary object. But often the two parts of the compound become closely united to form a transitive verb of simple meaning. In this case the compound verb is transitive solely by virtue of its prepositional part and can have but one accusative,—the same which was formerly the secondary object, but which now becomes the direct. So trāiciō comes to mean either (1) to pierce (anybody) [by hurling] or (2) to cross (a river etc.):

gladiō hominem trāiēcit, he pierced the man with a sword. [Here iaciō has lost all transitive force, and serves simply to give the force of a verb to the meaning of trāns, and to tell the manner of the act.]

Rhodanum trāiēcit, he crossed the Rhone. [Here iaciō has become simply a verb of motion, and trāiciō is hardly distinguishable from trānseō.]

In these examples hominem and Rhodanum, which would be secondary objects if trāiēcit were used in its primary signification, have become the direct objects. Hence in the passive construction they become the subjects and are put in the nominative:—

homō trāiectus est gladiō, the man was pierced with a sword.

Rhodanus trāiectus est, the Rhone was crossed.

The poetical trāiectus lōra (Aen. ii. 273), pierced with thongs, comes from a mixture of two constructions: (1) eum tritiecit lōra, he rove thongs through him,¹⁸⁴ and (2) eum trāiēcit lōris, he pierced him with thongs. In putting the sentence into a passive form, the direct object of the former (lōra) is irregularly kept, and the direct object of the latter (eum) is made the subject.
SYNTAX: CONSTRUCTION OF CASES

396. Some verbs of asking and teaching may take two accusatives, one of the Person (direct object), and the other of the Thing (secondary object):

mē sententiam rogāvit, he asked me my opinion.

ōtium dīvōs rogat (Hor. Od. ii. 16. 1), he prays the gods for rest.

haec praetōrem postulābās (Tull. 39), you demanded this of the praetor.

aedīlīs populum rogāre (Liv. vi. 42), to ask the people [to elect] Aediles.

docēre puerōs elementa, to teach children their A B C's.

NOTE.—This construction is found in classical authors with ōrō, poscō, reposcō, rogō, interrogō, flāgitō, doceō.

a. Some verbs of asking take the ablative of the person with a preposition instead of the accusative. So, always, petō (ab), quaerō (ex, ab, dē); usually poscō (ab), flāgitō (ab), postulō (ab), and occasionaily others:

pacem ab Rōmānīs petiērunt (B. G. ii 18), they sought peace from the Romans.

quod quaesīvit ex mē P. Apulêius (Phil. vi. 1), what Publius Apuleius asked of me.

b. With the passive of some verbs of asking or teaching, the person or the thing may be used as subject (cf. c. N. 2):—

Caesar sententiam rogātus est, Caesar was asked his opinion.

id ab eō flāgitābatur (B. C. i. 71), this was urgently demanded of him.

NOTE.—The accusative of the thing may be retained with the passive of rogō, and of verbs of teaching, and occasionally with a few other verbs:—

fuerant hōc rogāti (Cael. 64), they had been asked this.

poscor meum Laelapa (Ov. M. vii. 771), I am asked for my Laelaps.

Cicerō cūncta ēdoctus (Sall. Cat. 45), Cicero, being informed of everything.

But with most verbs of asking in prose the accusative of the thing becomes the subject nominative, and the accusative of the person is put in the ablative with a preposition: as,—nē postulautur quidem vīrēs ā senectūte (Cat. M. 34), strength is not even expected of an old man (asked from old age).
c. The verb cēlō, conceal, may take two accusatives, and the usually intransitive lateō, lie hid, an accusative of the person:

nōn tē cēlāvī sermōnem T. Ampī (Fam. ii. 16.3), I did not conceal from you the talk of Titus Ampius.

nec latuēre dolī frātrem Iūnōnis (Aen. i. 130), nor did the wiles of Juno escape the notice of her brother.

NOTE 1.—The accusative of the person with lateō is late or poetical (§388. C. N.^1).

NOTE 2.—All the double constructions indicated in § 396 arise from the wavering meaning of the verbs. Thus doceō means both to show a thing, and to instruct a person; cēlō to keep a person in the dark, and to hide a thing; rogō, to question a person, and to ask a question or a thing. Thus either accusative may be regarded as the direct object, and so become the subject of the passive (cf. b above), but for convenience the accusative of the thing is usually called secondary.
IDIOMATIC USES OF THE ACCUSATIVE

Idiomatic Uses

397. The Accusative has the following special uses:—
a. The accusative is found in a few adverbial phrases (Adverbial Accusative):—

id temporis, at that time; id (istuc) aetiltis, at that age.

id (quod) genus, of that (what) sort (perhaps originally nominative).

meam vicem, on my part.

bonam partem, in a great measare; maximam partem, for the most part.

virīle (muliebre) secus, of the male (female) sex (probably originally in apposition).

quod sī, but if (as to which, if); quod nisi, if not.

b. The so-called synecdochical or Greek Accusative, found in poetry and later Latin, is used to denote the part affected:—

caput nectentur (Aen. v.309), their heads shall he bound (they shall be bound about the head).

ārdentīs oculōs suffectī sanguine et īgnī (id. ii. 210), their glaring eyes blood-shot and blazing with fire (suffused as to their eyes with blood and fire).

nūda genū (id. i. 320), with her knee bare (bare as to the knee).

femur trāgulā ictus (Liv. xxi. 7.10), wounded in the thigh by a dart.

NOTE.—This construction is also called the Accusative of Specification.

c. In many apparently similar expressions the accusative may be regarded as the direct object of a verb in the middle voice (§156. a):

inūtile ferrum cingitur (Aen. ii. 510), he girds on the useless steel.

nodō sinūs collēcta fluentīs (id. i. 820), having her flowing folds gathered in a knot.

umerōs īnsternor pelle leōnis (id. ii. 722), I cover my shoulders with a lion's skin.

prōtinus induitur faciem cultumque Diānae (Ov. M. ii. 425), forthwith she assumes the shape and garb of Diana.

d. The Accusative is used in Exclamations:—

Ō fortūnātam rem piblicam, O fortunate republic! [Cf. Ō fortūnāta mors (Phil. xiv. 31), oh, happy death! (§339. a).]

ō mē īnfēlīcem (Mil. 102), oh, unhappy I!

mē miserum, ah, wretched me!

ēn quattuor ārās (Ecl. v.65), lo, four altars!

ellum (= em illum), there he is! [Cf. §146. a. N. 2.]

eccōs (= ecce eōs), there they are, look at them!

prō deum fidem, good heavens (0 protection of the gods)!

hōcine saeclum (Ter. Ad. 304), O this generation!

huncine hominem (Verr. v.62), this man, good heavens!

SYNTAX: CONSTRUCTION OF CASES
NOTE 1.—Such expressions usually depend upon some long-forgotten verb. The substantive is commonly accompanied by an adjective. The use of -ne in some cases suggests an original question, as in quid? what? why? tell me.

NOTE 2.—The omission of the verb has given rise to some other idiomatic accusatives. Such are:

salūtem (sc. dīcit) (in addressing a letter), greeting.

mē dīus fidius (sc. adiuvet), so help me heaven (the god of faith).

unde mihī lapidem (Hor. S. ii. 7.116), where can I get a stone?

quō mihi fortūnam (Hor. Ep. i. 5.12), of what use to me is fortune? [No verb thought of.]

e. The subject of an infinitive is in the accusative :

intellegō tē sapere (Fam. vii. 32.3), I perceive that you are wise.

eās rēs iactārī nōlēbat (B. G. i. 18), he was unwilling that these matters should be discussed.

NOTE.—This construction is especially common with verbs of knowing, thinking, telling, and perceiving (§580).

f. The accusative in later writers is sometimes used in apposition with a clause:—

dēserunt tribūnal … manūs intentantēs, causam discordiae et initium armōrum (Tac. Ann. i. 27), they abandon the tribunal shaking their fists, — a cease of dissension and the beginning of war.

NOTE.—This construction is an extension (under Greek influence) of a usage more nearly within the ordinary rules, such as,—Eumenem prōdidēre Antiochō, pācis mercēdem (Sall. Ep. Mith. 8), they betrayed Eumenes to Antiochus, the price of peace. [Here Eumenes may be regarded as the price, although the real price is the betrayal.] For the Accusative of the End of Motion, see § 427.2; for the Accusative of Motion of Time and Extent of Space, see §§423, 425; for the Accusative with Prepositions, see § 220.

ABLATIVE CASE

398. Under the name Ablative are included the meanings and, In part, the forms of three cases,—the Ablative proper, expressing the relation FROM; the Locative, IN; and the Instrumental, WITH or BY. These three cases were originally not wholly distinct in meaning, and their confusion was rendered more certain (1) by the development of meanings that approached each other and (2) by phonetic decay, by means of which these cases have become largely identical in form. Compare, for the first, the phrases ā parte dexterā, ON the right, quam ob causam, FROM which cause; ad fāmam, AT (in consequence of) the report; and, for the second, the like forms of the dative and ablative plural, the old dative in -ē of the fifth declension (§ 96), and the loss of the original -d of the ablative (§ 49. e; cf. § § 43. N. 1, 92.f, 214. a. N.). The relation of FROM includes separation, source, cause, agent, and comparison; that of WITH or BY, accompaniment, instrument, means, manner, quality, and price; that of IN or AT, place, time, circumstance. This classification according to the original cases (to which, however, too great a degree of certainty should not be attached)¹⁸⁵ is set forth in the following table:—

I. Ablative Proper (from)	1.	Of Separation, Privation, and Want (§ 400).
(Separative):	2.	Of Source (participles of origin, etc.) (§ 403).
	3.	Of Cause (labōrō, exsiliō, etc.) (§ 404).
	4.	Of Agent (with ab after Passives) (§ 405).
	5.	Of Comparison (THAN) (§ 406).
II. Instrumental Ablative	1.	Of Manner, Means, and Instrument(§ 408 ff.).
(with):	2.	Of Object of the Deponents ūtor etc.(§ 410).
	3.	Of Accompaniment (with cum) (§ 413).
	4.	Of Degree of Difference (§ 414).
	5.	Of Quality (with Adjectives) (§ 415).
	6.	Of Price and Exchange (§ 416).
	7.	Of Specification (§ 418).
	8.	Ablative Absolute (§ 419).
III. Locative Ablative	1.	Of Place where (commonly with in) (§ 421)
(in, on, at):	2.	Of Time and Circumstance (§ 423)

399. The Ablative is used to denote the relations expressed in English by the prepositions from; in, at; with, by:—

liberāre metū, to deliver from fear.

excultus doctrīnā, trained in learning.

hōc ipsō tempore, at this very time.

caecus avāritiā, blind with avarice.

occīsus gladiō, slain by the sword.

USES OF THE ABLATIVE PROPER

Ablative of Separation

400. Words signifying Separation or Privation are followed by the ablative.

401. Verbs meaning to remove, set free, be absent, deprive, and want, take the Ablative (sometimes with ab or ex):—

oculīs sē prīvāvit (Fin. v.87), he deprived himself of eyes.

omnī Galliā Rōmānīs interdīcit (B. C. i. 46), he (Ariovistus) bars the Romans from the whole of Gaul.

eī aquā et īgnī interdīcitur (Vell. ii. 45), he is debarred the use of fire and water. [The regular formula of banishment.]

voluptātibus carēre (Cat. M. 7), to lack enjoyments.

nōn egeō medicinā (Lael. 10), I want no physic.

levāmur superstitiōne, līberāmur mortis metū (Fin. i. 68), we are relieved from superstition, we are freed from fear of death.

solūtī ā cupiditātibus (Leg. Agr. i. 27), freed from desires.

multōs ex hīs incommodīs pecūniā sē līberāsse (Verr. v.23), that many have freed themselves by money from these inconveniences.

For the Genitive with verbs of separation and want, see § 356. N.

402. Verbs compounded with ā, ab, dē, ex, (1) take the simple Ablative when used figuratively; but (2) when used literally to denote actual separation or motion, they usually require a preposition (§ 426. 1):—

(1) cōnātū dēsistere (B. G. i. 8), to desist from the attempt.

dēsine commūnibus locīs (Acad. ii. 80), quit commonplaces.

abīre magistrātū, to leave one's office.

abstinēre iniūriā, to refrain from wrong.

(2) ā prōpōsitō aberrāre (Fin. v.83), to wander from the point.

dē prōvinciā dēcēdēre (Verr. ii. 48), to withdraw from one's province.

ab iūre abīre (id. ii. 114), to go outside of the law.

ex cīvitāte excessēre (B. C. vi. 8), they departed from the state. [But ef finibus suis ēxcēssērant (id. iv. 18), they had left their own territory.]

ā māgnō dēmissum nōmen Iūlō (Aen. i. 288), a name descended (sent down) from great Iulus.

For the Dative used instead of the Ablative of Separation, see § 381. For the Ablative of the actual place whence in idiomatic expressions, see §§ 427. 1, 428. f.

a. Adjectives denoting freedom and want are followed by ablative:—

urbs nūda praesidiō (Att. vii. 13), the city naked of defence.

immūnis mīlitiā (Liv. i. 43), free of military service.

plēbs orba tribūnīs (Leg. iii. 9), the people deprived of tribunes.

NOTE.—A preposition sometimes occurs:—

ā culpā vacuus (Sail. Cat. 14), free from blame.

līberī ā dēliciīs (Leg. Agr. i. 27), free from luxuries.

Messāna ab hīs rēbus vacua atque nūda est (Verr. iv. 3), Messana is empty and bare of these things.

For the Genitive with adjectives of want, see § 349. a.

Ablative of Source and Material

403. The Ablative (usually with a preposition) is used to denote the Source from which anything is derived, or the Material of which it consists:–
1. Source:—

Rhēnus oritur ex Lepontiīs (B. G. iv. 10), the Rhine rises in (from) the country of the Lepontii.

ab hīs sermō oritur (Lael. 5), the conversation is begun by (arises from) them.

cûius ratiōnis vim atque ūtilitātem ex illō caelestī Epicūrī volūmine accēpimus (N. D. i. 43), of this reasoning we have learned the power and advantage from that divine book of Epicurus.

suāvitātem odōrum quī afflārentur ē flōribus (Cat. M. 59), the sweetness of the odors which breathed from the flowers.

2. Material:—

erat tōtus ex fraude et mendāciō factus (Clu. 72), he was entirely made up of fraud and falsehood.

valvās māgnificentiōrēs, ex aurō atque ebore perfectiōrēs (Verr. iv. 124), more splendid doors, more finely wrought of gold and ivory.

factum dē cautibus antrum (Ov. M. i. 575), a cave formed of rocks.

templum dē marmore pōnam (Georg. iii. 13), I'll build a temple of marble.

NOTE 1.—In poetry the preposition is often omitted.

NOTE 2.—The Ablative of Material is a development of the Ablative of Source. For the Genitive of Material, see § 344.

a. Participles denoting birth or origin are followed by the Ablative of Source, generally without a preposition:—¹⁸⁶

Iove nātus et Mâiā (N. D. iii. 56), son of Jupiter and Maia.

ēdite rēgibus (Ror. Od. i. 1.1), descendant of kings.

quō sanguine crētus (Aen. ii. 74), born of what blood.

genitae Pandīone (Ov. M. vi. 666), daughters of Pandion.

NOTE 1.—A preposition (ab, dē, ēx) is usually expressed with pronouns, with the name of the mother, and often with that of other ancestors:

ex mē hīc nātus nōn est sed ex frātre meō (Ter. Ad. 40), this is not my son, but my brother's (not born from me, etc.).

cum ex utrāque [uxōre] fīlius nātus esset (De Or. i. 183), each wife having had a son (when a son had heen born of each wife).

Bēlus et omnēs ā Bēlō (Aen. i. 730), Beles and all his descendants.

NOTE 2.—Rarely, the place of birth is expressed by the ablative of source: as,— dēsīderāvit C. Flegīnātem Placentiā, A. Grānium Puteolīs (B. C. iii. 71), he lost Caius Fleginas of Plecentia, Aulus Granius of Puteoli.

NOTE 3.—The Roman tribe is regularly expressed by the ablative alone: as,— Q. Verrem Rōmiliā (Verr. i. 23), Quintus Verres of the Romilian tribe.

b. Some verbs may take the Ablative of Material without a preposition. Such are cōnstāre, cōnsistere, and continērī.¹⁸⁷ But with cōnstāre, ex is more common:—

domūs amoenitās nōn aedificiō sed silvā cōnstābat (Nep. Att. 13), the charm of the house consisted not in the buildings but in the woods.

ex animō cōnstāmus et corpore (Fin. iv. 19), we consist of soul and body.

vīta corpore et spīritū continētur (Marc. 28), life consists of body and spirit.

c. The Ablative of Material without a preposition is used with facere, fieri, and similar words, in the sense of do with, become of:—

quid hōc homine faciātis (Verr. ii. 1. 42), what are you going to do with this man?

quid Tulliolā meā fīet (Fam. xiv. 4. 3), what will become of my dear Tullia?

quid tē futūrum est (Verr. ii. 155), what will become of you?

d. The Ablative of Material with ex, and in poetry without preposition, sometimes depends directly on a noun:—

nōn pauca pōcula ex aurō (Verr. iv. 62), not a few cups of gold.

scopulīs pendentibus antrum (Aen. i. 166), a cave of hanging rock.

For Ablative of Source instead of Partitive Genitive, see § 346. c.

Ablative of Cause

404. The Ablative (with or without a preposition) is used to express Cause:—¹⁸⁸

neglegentiā plectimur (Lael. 85), we are chastised for negligence.

gubernātōris ars ūtilitāte nōn arte laudātur (Fin. 1.42), the pilot's skill praised for its service, not its skill.

certis dē causīs, for cogent reasons.

ex vulnere aeger (Rep. ii. 38), disabled by (from) a wound.

mare ā sōle lucet (Acad. ii. 105), the sea gleams in the sun (from the sun);

a. The Ablative of Cause without a preposition is used with labōrō (also with ex), exsiliō, exsultō, triumphō, lacrimō, ārdeō:—

doleō tē aliīs malīs labōrāre (Fam. iv. 3), I am sorry that you suffer with other ills. [Cf. ex aere alienō labōrāre (B. C. iii. 22), to labor in debt (from another's money).]

exsultāre laetitiā, triumphāre gaudiō coepit (Clu. 14), she began to exult in gladness, and triumph in joy.

exsiluī gaudiō (Fam. xvi. 16), I jumped for joy. [Cf. lacrimō gaudiō (Ter Ad. 409), I weep for joy.]

ārdēre dolōre et irā (Att. ii. 19.5), to be on fire with pain and anger.

For gaudeō and glōrior, see § 431.

b. The motive which influences the mind of the person acting is expressed by the ablative of cause; the object exciting the emotion often by ob¹⁸⁹ or propter with the accusative:—

nōn ob praedam aut spoliandī cupīdine (Tac. H. i. 63), not for booty or through lust of plunder.

amīcitia ex sē et propter sē expetenda (Fin. ii. 83), friendship must be sought of and for itself.

NOTE.—But these constructions are often confused: as,—pārēre lēgibus propter metum (Par. 34), to obey the laws on account of fear. [Here metum is almost equivalent to ``the terrors of the law,'' and hence propter is used, though the ablative would be more natural.]

c. The ablatives causā and grātiā, for the sake of, are used with a genitive preceding, or with a pronoun in agreement:—

eā causā, on account of this; quā grātiā (Ter. Eun. 99), for what purpose?

meā causā, for my sake; meā grātiā (Plaut.), for my sake.

ex meā et reī pūblicae causā, for my own sake and the republic's.

praedictiōnis causā (N. D. iii. 5), by way of prophecy.

exemplī grātiā (verbī grātiā), for example.

suī pūrgāndī grātiā, for the sake of clearing themselves.

NOTE.—But grātiā with possessives in this use is rare.

Ablative of Agent

405. The Voluntary Agent after a passive verb is expressed by the Ablative with ā or ab:—

laudātur ab hīs, culpātur ab illīs (Hor. S. i. 2. 11), he is praised by these, blamed by those.

ab animō tuō quidquid agitur id agitur ā tē (Tusc. i. 52), whatever is done by your soul is done by yourself.

ā filiīs in iūdicium vocātus est (Cat. M. 22), he was brought to trial by his sons.

cum ā cūnctō cōnsessū plausus esset multiplex datus (id. 64), when great applause had been given by the whole audience.

nē virtūs ab audāciā vincerētur (Sest. 92), that valor might not be overborne by audacity. [Audācia is in a manner personified.]

NOTE 1.—This construction is developed from the Ablative of Source. The agent is conceived as the source or author of the action.

NOTE 2.—The ablative of the agent (which requires ā or ab) must be carefully distinguished from the ablative of instrument, which has no preposition (§ 400). Thus—occīsus gladiō, slain by a sword; but, occīsus ab hoste, slain by an enemy.

NOTE 3.—The ablative of the agent is commonest with nouns denoting persons, but it occurs also with names of things or qualities when these are conceived as performing an action and so are partly or wholly personified, as in the last example under the rule.

a. The ablative of the agent with ab is sometimes used after intransitive verbs that have a passive sense:—

perīre ab hoste, to be slain by an enemy.

b. The personal agent, when considered as instrument or means, is often expressed by per with the accusative, or by operā with a genitive or possessive:—

ab explōrātōribus certior factus est (B. G. i. 21), he was informed by scouts (in person). But,

per explōrātōrēs Caesar certior factus est (id. i. 12), Caesar was informed by (means of) scouts.

ēlautae operā Neptūnī (Plaut. Rud. 699), washed clean by the services of Neptune.

nōn meā operā ēvēnit (Ter. Hec. 228), it hasn't happened through me (by my exertions). [Cf. êius operā, B. G. v. 27.]

NOTE 1.—The ablative of means or instrument is often used instead of the ablative of agent, especially in military phrases: as,— haec excubitōribus tenēbantur (B. G. vii. 69), these (redoubts) were held by means of sentinels.

NOTE 2.—An animal is sometimes regarded as the means or instrument, sometimes as the agent. Hence both the simple ablative and the ablative with ab occur:—

equō vehī, to ride on horseback (be conveyed by means of a horse). [Not ab equō.]

clipeōs ā mūribus esse dērōsōs (Div. i. 99), that the shields were gnawed by mice.

For the Dative of the Agent with the Gerundive, see § 374.

Ablative of Comparison

406. The Comparative degree is often followed by the Ablative¹⁹⁰ signifying than:—

Catō est Cicerōne ēloquentior, Cato is more eloquent than Cicero.

quid nōbīs duōbus labōriōsius est (Mil. 5), what more burdened with toil than we two?

vīlius argentum est aurō, virtūtibus aurum (Hor. Ep. i. 1.52), silver is less precious than gold, gold than virtue.

a. The idiomatic ablatives opīniōne, spē, solitō, dictō, aequō, crēdibilī, and iūstō are used after comparatives instead of a clause:—

celerius opīniōne (Fam. xiv. 23), faster than one would think.

sērius spē omnium (Liv. xxvi. 26), later than all hoped (than the hope of all).

amnis solitō citātior (id. xxiii. 19. 11), a stream swifter than its wont.

gravius aequō (Sall. Cat. 51), more seriously than was right.

407. The comparative may be followed by quam, than. When quam is used, the two things compared are put in the same case:—

nōn callidior es quam hīc (Rosc. Am. 49), you are not more cunning than he.

cōntiōnibus accommodātior est quam iūdiciīs (Clu. 2), fitter for popular assemblies than for courts.

misericordiā dīgnior quam contumēliā (Pison. 32), more worthy of pity than disgrace.

a. The construction with quam is required when the first of things compared is not in the Nominative or Accusative.
NOTE 1.—There are several limitations on the use of the ablative of comparison even when the first of the things compared is in the nominative or accusative. Thus the quam construction is regularly used (1) when the comparative is in agreement with a genitive, dative, or ablative: as,— senex est eō meliōre condiciōne quam adulēscēns (Cat. M. 68), an old man is in this respect in a better position than a young man; and (2) when the second member of the comparison is modified by a clause: as,— minor fuit aliquantō is quī prīmus fābulam dedit quam eī quī, etc. (Brut. 73), he who presented a play was somewhat younger than those who, etc.

NOTE 2.—The poets sometimes use the ablative of comparison where the prose construction requires quam: as,— pāne egeō iam mellītīs potiōre placentīs (Hor. Ep. i. 10. 11), I now want bread better than honey-cakes.

NOTE 3.—Relative pronouns having a definite antecedent never take quam in this construction, but always the ablative: as,— rēx erat Aenēās nōbīs, quō iūstior alter nec, etc. (Aen. i. 544), Æneas was our king, than whom no other [was] more righteous.

b. In sentences expressing or implying a general negative the ablative (rather than quam) is the regular construction when the first member of the comparison is in the nominative or accusative:—

nihil dētestābilius dēdecore, nihil foedius servitūte (Phil. iii. 36), nothing is more dreadful than disgrace, nothing viler than slavery.

neminem esse cāritōrem tē (Att. x. 8A. 1), that no one is dearer than you.

c. After the comparatives plūs, minus, amplius, longius, without quam, a word of measure or number is often used with no change in its case:—

plūs septingentī capti (Liv. xli. 12), more than seven hundred were taken. [Nominative.]

plūs tertiā parte interfectā (B. G. iii. 6), more than a third part being slain. [Ablative Absolute.]

aditus in lātitūdinem nōn amplius ducentōrum pedum relinquēbātur (id. ii. 29), an approach of not more than two hundred feet in width was left. [Genitive of Measure: § 345. b.]

NOTE.—The noun takes the case required by the context, without reference to the comparative, which is in a sort of apposition: ``seven hundred were taken [and] more.''

d. Alius is sometimes followed by the ablative in poetic and colloquial use; in formal prose it is followed by ac (atque), et, more rarely by nisi, quam:—

nec quicquam aliud lībertāte commūnī (Fam. xi. 2), nothing else than the common liberty.

alius Lȳsippō (Hor. Ep. ii. 1.240), another than Lysippus.

num aliud vidētur esse ac meōrum bonōrum dīreptiō (Dom. 51), does it seem anything different from the plundering of my property?

erat historia nihil aliud nisi annālium cōnfectiō (De Or. ii. 52), history was nothing else but a compiling of records.

e. The comparative of an adverb is usually followed by quam, rarely by the ablative except in poetry:—

tempus tē citius quam ōrātiō de-ficeret (Rosc. Am. 89), time would fail you sooner than words. But,—

cur olīvum sanguine viperīnō cautius vītat (Hor. Od. i. 8. 9), why does he shun oil more carefully than viper's blood?

NOTE.—Prepositions meaning before or beyond (as ante, prae, praeter, suprā) are sometimes used with a comparative: as,— scelere ante aliōs immānior omnīs (Aen. i. 347), more monstrous in crime than all other men.

USES OF THE ABLATIVE AS INSTRUMENTAL

408. Means, Instrument, Manner, and Accompaniment are denoted by the Instrmental Ablative (see § 398), but some of these uses more commonly require a preposition. As they all come from one source (the old Instrumental Case) no sharp line can be drawn between them, and indeed the Romans themselves can hardly have thought of any distinction. Thus, in omnibus precibus ōrābant, they entreated every [kind of] prayer, the ablative, properly that of means, cannot be distinguished from that of manner.

Ablative of Means or Instrument

409. The Ablative is used to denote the means or instrument of an action:—

certantēs pūgnīs, calcibus, unguibus, morsū dēnique (Tusc. v. 77), fight with fists, heels, nails, and even teeth.

cum pūgnīs et calcibus concīsus esset (Verr. iii. 56), when he had been pummelled with their fists and heels.

meīs labōribus interitū rem pūblicam līberāvī (Sull. 33), by my toils I saved the state from ruin.

multae istārum arborum meā manū sunt satae (Cat. M. 59), many of those trees were set out with my own hands.

vī victa vīs, vel potius oppressa virtūte audācia est (Mil. 30), violence was overcome by violence, or rather, boldness was put down by courage.

a. The Ablative of Means is used with verbs and adjectives filling, otbovnding, and the like:—

Deus bonīs omnibus explēvit mundum (Tim. 3), God has filled the world all good things.

aggere et crātibus fossās explent (B. G. vii. 86), they fill up the ditches earth and fascines.

tōtum montem hominibus complēvit (id. i. 24), he filled the whole mountain with men.

opīmus praedā (Verr. ii. 1. 132), rich with spoils.

vīta plēna at cōnferta voluptātibus (Sest. 23), life filled and crowded with delights.

Forum Appī differtum nautīs (Hor. S. i. 5.4), Forum Appii crammed with bargemen.

NOTE.—In poetry the Genitive is often used with these words. Compleō and impleō sometimes take the genitive in prose (cf. § 356); so regularly plēnus and (with person nouns) complētus and refertus (§ 349. a):—

omnia plēna lūctūs et maerōris fuērunt (Sest. 128), everything was full of and mourning.

ōllam dēnāriōrum implēre (Fam. ix. 18), to fill a pot with money. [Here evidently colloquial, otherwise rare in Cicero.]

convīvium vīcīnōrum compleō (Cat. M. 46, in the month of Cato), I fill up the banquet with my neighbors.

cum complētus mercātōrum carcer esset (Verr. v. 147), when the prison was full of traders.

410. The deponents ūtor, fruor, fungor, potior, vescor, with several of their compounds,¹⁹¹ govern the Ablative:—

ūtar vestrā benīgnitāte (Arch. 18), I will avail myseif of your kindness.

ita mihi salvā rē pūblicā vōbīscum perfruī liceat (Cat. iv. 11), so may I enjoy with you the state secure and prosperous.

fungī inānī mūnere (Aen. vi. 885), to perform an idle service.

aurō hērōs potitur (Ov. M. vii. 156), the hero takes the gold.

lacte et ferīnā carne vescēbantur (Iug. 89), they fed on milk and game.

NOTE.—This is properly an Ablative of Means (instrumental) and the verbs are really in the middle voice (§ 156. a). Thus ūtor with the ablative siguifies I employ myself (or avail myself) by means of, etc. But these earlier meanings disappeared from the language, leaving the construction as we find it.

a. Potior sometimes takes the Genitive, as always in the phrase potīri rērum, to get control or be master of affairs (§ 357. a):

tōtīus Galliae sēsē potīrī posse spērant (B. G. i. 3), they hope they can get possession of the whole of Gaul.

NOTE 1.—In early Latin, these verbs are sometimes transitive and take the accusative:

fūnctus est officium (Tar. Ph. 281), he performed the part, etc.

ille patria potitur commoda (Tar. Ad. 871), he enjoys his ancestral estate.

NOTE 2.—The Gerundive of these verbs is used personally in the passive as if the verb were transitive (but at. § 500. 3): as,—Hēracliō omnia ūtenda ac possidenda trādiderat (Verr. ii. 46), he had given over everything to Heraclius for his use and possession (to be used and possessed).

411. Opus and ūsus, signifying need, take the Ablative:—¹⁹²

magistrātibus opus est (Leg. iii. 5), there is need of magistrates.

nunc vīribus ūsus (Aen. viii. 441), now there is need of strength.

NOTE.—The ablative with ūsus is not common in classic prose.

a. With opus the ablative of a perfect participle is often found, either agreeing with a noun or used as a neuter abstract noun :

opus est tuā exprōmptā malitiā atque astūtiā (Ter. And. 723), I must have your best cunning and cleverness set to work.

properātō opus erat (cf. Mil. 49), there was need of haste.

NOTE 1.—So rarely with ūsus in comedy: as,—quid īstīs ūsust cōnscrīptīs (Pl. Bacch. 749), what's the good of having them in writing?

NOTE 2.—The omission of the noun gives rise to complex constructions: as,—quid opus factōst (cf. B.G. i. 42), what must be done? [Cf. quid opus est fierī? with quō factō opus est?]

b. Opus is often found in the predicate, with the thing needed in the nominative as subject:—

dux nōbīs et auctor opus est (Fam. ii. 6.4), we need a chief and responsible adviser (a chief, etc., is necessary for us).

sī quid ipsī opus asset (B. G. i. 34), if he himself wanted anything (if any. thing should be necessary for him).

quae opus sunt (Cato R. R. 14. 3), things which are required.

Ablative of Manner

412. The Manner of an action is denoted by the Ablative; usually with cum, unless a limiting adjective is used with the noun:—

cum celeritāte vēnit, he came with speed. But,

summā celeritāte vēnit, he came with the greatest speed.

quid rēfert quā mē ratiōne cōgātis (Lael. 26), what difference does it make in what way you compel me?

a. But cum is often used even when the ablative has a limiting adjective:—

quantō id cum perīculō fēcerit (B. G. i. 17), at what risk he did this.

nōn minōre cum taediō recubant (Plin. Ep. ix. 17. 3), they recline with no less weariness.

b. With such words of manner as modō, pactō, ratiōne, ritū, vī, viā, and with stock expressions which have become virtually adverbs (as silentiō, iūre, iniūriā), cum is not used:—

apis Matīnae mōre modōque carmina fingō (Hor. Od. iv. 2.28), in the style and manner of a Matinian bee I fashion songs.

NOTE.—So in poetry the ablative of manner often omits cum: as,— īnsequitur cumulō aquae mōns (Aen. i. 105), a mountain of water follows in a mass. [Cf. murmure (id. i. 124); rīmīs (id. i. 123).

Ablative of Accompeninient

413. Accompaniment is denoted by the Ablative, regularly with cum:—

cum coniugibus ac līberis (Att. viii. 2. 3), with wives and children.

cum funditōribus sagittāriīsque flūmen trānsgressī (B. G. ii. 19), having crossed the river with the archers and slingers.

quae supplicātiō sī cum cēterīs cōnferātur (Cat. iii. 15), if this thanksgiving be compared with others.

quae [lēx] esse cum tēlō vetat (Mil. 11), the law which forbids [one] to go armed (be with a weapon).

sī sēcum suōs ēdūxerit (Cat. i. 30), if he leads out with him his associates. [For sēcum, See § 144. b. N.^1.]

a. The ablative is used without cum in some military phrases, and here and there by early writers:—

subsequēbātur omnibus cōpiīs (B. G. ii. 19), he followed close with all his forces. [But also cum omnibus cōpiīs, id. i. 26.]

hōc praesidiō profectus est (Verr. ii. 1.86), with this force he set out.

NOTE.—Misceō and iungō, with some of their compounds, and cōnfundō take either (1) the Ablative of Accompaniment with or without cum, or (2) sometimes the Dative (mostly poetical or late):

mixta dolōre voluptās (B. Al. 56), pleasure mingled with pain.

cûius animum cum suō misceat (Lael. 81), whose soul he may mingle with his own.

flētumque cruōrī miscuit (Ov. M. iv. 140), and mingled fears with blood.

Caesar eās cohortīs cum exercitū suō coniūnxit (B. C. i. 18), Cæsar united those cohorts with his own army.

āēr coniūnctis terrīs (Lucr. v. 562), air united with earth.

hūmānō capitī cervīcem equīnam iungere (Hor. A. P. 1), to join to a human heed a horse's neck.

b. Words of Contention and the like require cum:

armīs cum hoste certāre (Off. iii. 87), to fight with the enemy in arms.

libenter haec cum Q. Catulō disputārem (Manil. 66), I should gladly discuss these matters with Quintus Catulus.

NOTE.—But words of contention may take the Dative in poetry (see § 368. a).

Ablative of Degree of Difference

414. With Comparatives and words iniplying comparison the ablative is need to denote the Degree of Difference:—

quīnque mīlibus passuum distat, it is five miles distant.

ā mīlibus passuum circiter duōbus (B. G. v.82), at a distance of about two miles. [For ā as an adverb, see § 433. 3.]

aliquot ante annīs (Tusc. i. 4), several years before.

aliquantō post suspexit (Rep. vi. 9), a while after, he looked up.

multō mē vigilāre ācrius (Cat. i. 8), that I watch much more sharply.

nihilō erat ipse Cyclōps quam ariēs prūdentior (Tuse. v.115), the Cyclops himself was not a whit wiser than the ram.

a. The ablatives quō…eō (hōc), and quantō…tantō, are used correlatively with comparatives, like the English the…the:— ¹⁹³

quō minus cupiditātis, eō plūs auctōritātis (Liv. xxiv. 28), the less greed, the more weight (by what the less, by that the more).

quantō erat gravior oppūgnātiō, tantō crēbriōrēs litterae mittēbantur (B. G. v. 45), the severer the siege was, the more frequently letters were sent.

NOTE.—To this construction are doubtless to be referred all cases of quō and eō (hōc) with a comparative, even when they have ceased to be distinctly felt as degree of difference and approach nie Ablative of Cause:

eōque mē minus paenitet (N. D. i. 8), and for that reason I repret less, etc. (by so much the less I regret).

haec eō facilius faciēbant, quod (B. G. iii. 12), this they did the more easily for thts reason, because, etc. [Cf. hōc mâiōre spē, quod (id. iii. 9).]

b. The Ablative of Comparison (§ 406) and the Ablative of Degree of Difference are sometimes used together with the same adjective:—

paulō minus ducentīs (B. C. iii. 28), a little less than two hundred.

patria, quae mihi vītā meā multō est cārior (Cat. i. 27), my country, which is much dearer to me than life.

But the construction with quam is more common.

Ablative of Quality

415. The quality of a thing is denoted by the Ablative with an adjective or genitive modifier. This is called the Descriptive Ablative or Ablative of Quality:— ¹⁹⁴

animō meliōre sunt gladiātōrēs (Cat. ii. 26), the gladiators are of a better mind.

quae cum esset cīvitās aequissimō iūre ac foedere (Arch. 6), as this was a city with perfectly equal constitutional rights.

mulierem eximiā pulchritūdine (Verr. ii. 1.64), a woman of rare beauty.

Aristotelēs, vir summō ingeniō, scientiā, cōpiā (Tusc. i. 7), Aristotle, a man of the greatest genius, learning, and gift of expression.

dē Domitiō dīxit versum Graecum eādem sententiā (Deiot. 25), concerning Domitius he recited a Greek line of the same tenor.

NOTE.—The Ablative of Quality (like the Genitive of Quality, § 345) modifies a substantive by describing it. It is therefore equivalent to an adjective, and may be either attributive or predicate. In this it differs from other ablatives, which are equivalent to adverbs.

a. In expressions of quality the Genitive or the Ablative may often be used indifferently; but physical qualities are oftener denoted by the Ablative (cf. § 345. N.):—

capillō sunt prōmissō (B. G. v.14), they have long hair.

ut capite opertō sit (Cat. M. 34), to have his head covered (to be with covered head).

quam fuit inbēcillus P. Āfricānī fīlius, quam tenuī aut nūllā potius valētūdine (id. 35), how weak was the son of Africanus, of what feeble health, or rather none at all!

Ablative of Price

416. The price of a thing is put in the Ablative:—

agrum vēndidit sēstertium sex mīlibus, he sold the land for 6000 sesterces.

Antōnius rēgna addīxit pecūniā (Phil. vii. 15), Antony sold thrones for money.

logōs ridiculōs: quis cēnā poscit (P1. Stich. 221), jokes: who wants them for (at the price of) a dinner?

māgnō illī ea cūnctātiō stetit (Liv. ii. 36), that hesitation cost him dear.

NOTE.—To this head is to be referred the Ablative of the Penalty (§ 353. 1).

417. Certain adjectives of quantity are used in the Genitive to denote indefinite value. Such are māgnī, parvī, tantī, quantī, plūris, minōris:—

meā māgni interest, it is of great consequence to me.

illud parvī rēfert (Manil. 18), this is of small account.

est mihi tantī (Cat. ii. 15), it is worth the price (it is of so much).

Verrēsne tibi tantī fuit (Verr. ii. 1. 77), was Verres of so much account to you?

tantōne minōris decumae vēniērunt (id. iii. 106), were the tithes sold for so much less?

ut tē redimās captum quam queās minimō sī nequeās paululō, at quantī queās (Ter. Eun. 74), to ransom yourself when captured, at the cheapest rate you can; if you can't for a small sum, then at any rate for what you can.

NOTE.—These are really Genitives of Quality (§ 345. b).

a. The genitive of certain colorless nouns is used to denote indefinite value. Such are nihilī (nīlī), nothing; assis, a farthing (rare); floccī (a flock of wool), a straw:—

nōn floccī faciō (Att. xiii. 50), I care not a straw. [Colloquial.]

utinam ego istuc abs tē factum nīlī penderem (Ter. Eun. 94), O that I cared nothing for this being done by you! [Colloquial.]

b. With verbs of exchanging, either the thing taken or the thing given in exchange may be in the Ablative of Price. Such are mūtō, commūtō, permūtō, vertō:—

fidem suam et religiōnem pecūniā commūtāre (Clu. 129), to barter his faith and conscience for money.

exsilium patriā sēde mūtāvit (Q. C. iii. 7.11), he exchanged his native land for exile (he took exile in exchange for his native land).

vēlōx saepe Lucrētilem mūtat Lycaeō Faunus (Hor. Od. i. 17. 1), nimble Faunus often changes Lycæus for Lucretilis. [He takes Lucretilis at the price of Lycæus, i.e. he goes from Lycæus to Lucretilis.]

vertere fūneribus triumphōs (id. i. 35.4), to change the triumph to the funeral train (exchange triumphs for funerals). [Poetical.]

NOTE.—With verbs of exchanging cum is often used, perhaps with a different conception of the action: as,— ariēs…cum croceō mūtābit vellera lūtō (Ecl. iv. 44), the ram shall change his fleece for [one dyed with] the yellow saffron.

c. With verbs of buying and selling the simple Ablative of Price must be used, except in the case of tantī, quantī,plūris, minōris:—

quantī eam ēmit? vīlī…quot minīs? quadrāgintā minis (Pl. Epid. 51) what did he buy her for? Cheap. For how many minæ? Forty.

Ablative of Specification

418. The Ablative of Specification denotes that in respect to which anything is or is done:—

virtūte praecēdunt (B. G. i. 1), they excel in courage.

claudus alterō pede (Nep. Ages. 8), lame of one foot.

linguā haesitantēs, vōce absonī (De Or. i. 115), hesitating in speech, harsh in voice.

sunt enim hominēs nōn rē sed nōmine (Off. i. 105), for they are men not in fact, but in name.

mâior nātū, older; minor nātū, younger (cf. § 131. c).

paulum aetāte prōgressī (Cat. M. 33), somewhat advanced in age.

corpore senex esse poterit, animō numquam erit (id. 38), he may be an old man in body, he never will be [old] at heart.

a. To this head are to be referred many expressions where the ablative expresses that in accordance with which anything is or is done:—

meō iūre, with perfect right; but, meō modō, in my fashion.

meā sententiā, in my opinion; but also more formally, ex meā sententiā. [Here the sense is the same, but the first ablative is specification, the second source.]

propinquitāte coniūnctōs atque nātūrā (Lael. 50), closely allied by kindred and nature. [Here the ablative is not different in sense from those above but no doubt is a development of means.]

quī vincit vīribus (id. 55), who surpasses in strength. [Here it is impossibe to tell whether vīribus is the means of the superiority or that in respect to which one is superior.]

NOTE.—As the Romans bad no such categories as we make, it is impossible to classify all uses of the ablative. The ablative of specification (originally instrumental) is closely akin to that of manner, and shows some resemblance to means and cause.

For the Supine in -ū as an Ablative of Specification, see § 510.

b. The adjectives dīgnus and indīgnus take the ablative:—

vir patre, avō, mâiōribus suīs dīgnissimos (Phil. iii. 25), a man most worthy of his father, grandfather, and ancestors

tē omnī honōre indīgnissimum iūdicāvit (Vat. 39), he judged you entirely unworthy of every honor.

NOTE 1.—So the verb dīgnor in poetry and later prose: as,— haud equidem tālī mē dīgnor honōre (Aen. i. 335), I do not deem myself worthy of such an honor.

NOTE 2.—Dīgnus and indīgnus sometimes take the genitive in colloquial usage and in poetry:—

cūram dignissimam tuae virtūtis (Balbus in Att. viii. 15), care most worthy of your noble character.

dīgnus salūtis (Plant. Trin. 1153), worthy of safety.

māgnōrum haud umquam indīgnus avōrum (Aen. xii. 649), never unworthy of my great ancestors.

Ablative Absolute

419. A noun or pronoun, with a participle in agreement, inay be put in the Ablative to define the time or circumstances of an action. This construction is called the Ablative Absolute:— ¹⁹⁵

Caesar, acceptīs litterīs, nūntium mittit (B. G. v.46), having received the letter, Cæsar sends a messenger (the letter having been received).

quibus rēbus cōgnitīs Caesar apud mīlitēs cōntiōniātur (B. C. i. 7), having learned this, Casar makes a speech to the soldiers.

fugātō omnī equitatū (B. G. vii. 68), all the cavalry being put to flight.

interfectō Indūtiomārō (id. vi. 2), upon the death of Indutiomarus.

nōndum hieme cōnfectā in fīnīs Nerviōrum contendit (id. vi. 3), though the winter was not yet over, he hastened into the territory of the Nervii.

compressī [sunt] cōnatūs nūllō tumultū pūblicē concitātō (Cat. i. 11), the attempts were put down without exciting any general alarm.

nē vōbīs quidem omnibus rē etiam tum probātā (id. ii. 4), since at that time the facts were not yet proved even to all of you.

NOTE.—The ablative absolute is an adverbial modifier of the predicate. It is, however, not grammatically dependent on any word in the sentence: hence its name absolute (absolūtus, i.e. free or unconnected). A substantive in the ablative absolute very seldom denotes a person or thing elsewhere mentioned in the same clause.

a. An adjective, or a second noun, may take the place of the participle in the Ablative Absolute construction:—¹⁹⁶

exiguā parte aestātis reliquā (B. G. iv. 20), when but a small part of the summer was left (a small part of the summer remaining).

L. Domitiō Ap. Claudiō cōnsulibus (id. v.1), in the consulship of Lucius Domitius and Appius Claudius (Lucius Domitius and Appius Claudius being consuls). [The regular way of expressing a date, see § 424. g.]

nīl dēspērandum Teucrō duce et auspice Teucrō (Hor. Od. i. 7.27), there should be no despair under Teucer's leadership and auspices (Teucer being leader, etc.).

b. A phrase or clause, used substantively, sometimes occurs as ablative absolute with a participle or an adjective:—

incertō quid peterent (Liv. xxviii. 36), as it was uncertain what they should aim at (it being uncertain, etc.).

compertō vānum esse formīdinem (Tac. Ann. i. 66), when it was found that the alarm was groundless.

cūr praetereātur dēmōnstrātō (Inv. ii. 34), when the reason for omitting it has been explained (why it is passed by being explained).

NOTE.—This construction is very rare except in later Latin.

c. A participle or an adjective is sometimes used adverbially in the ablative absolute without a substantive:—

cōnsultō (Off. i. 27), on purpose (the matter having been deliberated on).

mihi optātō vēneris (Att. xiii. 28. 3), you will come in accordance with my wish.

serēnō (Liv. xxxi. 12), under a clear sky (it [being] clear).

nec auspicātō nec lītātō (id. v.38), with no auspices or favorable sacrifice.

tranquillō, ut âiunt, quīlibet gubernātor est (Sen. Ep. 85. 34), in good weather, as they say, any man's a pilot.

420. The Ablative Absolute often takes the place of a Subordinate Clause. Thus it may replace—
1. A Temporal Clause (§ 541 ff.):

patre interfectō, [his] father having been killed. [This corresponds to cum pater interfectus esset, when his father had been killed.]

recentibus sceleris êius vestīgiīs (Q. C. vii. 1.1), while the traces of the crime were fresh. [Cf. dum recentia sunt vestīgia.]

2. A Causal Clause (§ 540):—

at eī quī Alesiae obsidēbantur praeteritā diē quā auxilia suōrum exspectāverant, consūmptō omnī frūmentō, conciliō coāctō cōnsultābant (B. G. vii. 77), but those who were under siege at Alesia, since the time, etc., had expired, and their grain had been exhausted, calling a council (see 5 below), consulted together. [Cf. cum diēs praeterīsset, etc.]

Dārēus, dēspērātā pāce, ad reparandās vīrīs intendit animum (Q. C. iv. 6.1), Darius, since he despaired of peace, devoted his energies to recruiting his forces. [Cf. cum pācem dēspērāret.]

3. A Concessive Clause (§ 527):—

at eō repūgnante fiēbat (cōnsul), immo vērō eō fiēbat magis (Mil. 34), but though he (Clodius) opposed, he (Milo) was likely to be elected consul; nay, rather, etc.

turribus excitātīs, tamen hās altitūdō puppium ex barbarīs nāvibus superābat (B. G. iii. 14), although towers had been built up, still the high sterns of the enemy's ships rose above them.

4. A Conditional Clause (§ 521):

occurrēbat eī, mancam et dēbilem praetūram futūram suam, cōnsule Milōne (Mil. 25), it occurred to him that his prætorship would be maimed and feeble, if Milo were consul. [sī Milō cōnsul esset.]

quā (regiōne) subāctā licēbit dēcurrere in illud mare (Q. C. ix. 3. 13), if this region is subdued, we shall be free to run down into that sea.

quā quidem dētrāctā (Arch. 28), if this be taken away.

5. A Clause of Accompanying Circumstance :

ego haec ā Chrȳsogonō meā sponte, remōtō Sex. Rōsciō, quaerō (Rosc. Am. 130), of my own accord, without reference to Sertus Roscius (Sextus Roscius being put aside), I ask these questions of Chrysogonus.

nec imperante nec sciente nec praesente dominō (Mil. 29), without their master's giving orders, or knowing it, or being present.

NOTE.—As the English Nominative Absolute is far less common than the Ablative Absolute in Latin, a change of form is generally required in translation. Thus the present participle is oftenest to be rendered in English by a relative clause with when or while; and the perfect passive participle by the perfect active participle. These changes may be seen in the following example:—

=46mm33333ēm plus8pt minus2pt At illī, intermissō spatiō, imprūdentibus nostrīs atque occupatīs in mūnītiōne castrōrum, subitō sē ex silvīs ēiēcērunt; impetūque in eōs factō quī erant in statiōne prō castrīs conlocātī, ācriter pūgnāvērunt; duābusque missīs subsidiō cohortibus ā Caesare, cum hae (perexiguō intermissō locī spatiō inter sē) cōnstitissent, novō genere pūgnae perterritīs nostrīs, per mediōs audācissimē perrūpērunt sēque inde incolumīs recēpērunt.

—CAESAR, B. G. v.15.

=52mm=.333333em plus8pt minus2pt But they, having paused a space, while our men were unaware and busied in fortifying the camp, suddenly threw themselves out of the woods; then, making an attack upon those who were on guard in front of the camp, they fought fiercely; and, though two cohorts had been sent by Caesar as reinforcements, after these had taken their position (leaving very little space of ground between them), as our men were alarmed by the strange kind of fighting, they dashed most daringly through the midst of them and got off safe.

For the Ablative with Prepositions, see § 220.

THE ABLATIVE AS LOCATIVE

Ablative of Place

421. The Locative Case was originally used (literally) to denote the place where and (figuratively) to denote the time when (a development from the idea of place). But this case was preserved only in names of towns and a few other words, and the place where is usually denoted by the Ablative. In this construction the Ablative was, no doubt, used at first without a preposition, but afterwards it became associated in most instances with the preposition in.

422. In expressions of Time and Place the Latin shows a variety of idiomatic constructions (Ablative, Accusative, and Locative), which are systematically treated in § 423 ff.

TIME AND PLACE

Time

423. Time when, or within which, is expressed by the Ablative; time how long by the Accusative. 1. Ablative:—

cōnstitūtā diē, on the appointed day; prīmā lūce, at daybreak.

quotā hōrā, at what o'clock? tertiā vigiliā, in the third watch.

tribus proximīs annīs (Iug. 11), within the last three years.

diēbus vīgintī quīnque aggerem exstrūxērunt (B. G. vii. 24), within twenty-five days they finished building a mound.

2. Accusative:—

diēs continuōs trīgintā, for thirty days together.

cum trīduum iter fēcisset (B. G. ii. 16), when he had marched three days.

NOTE.—The Ablative of Time is locative in its origin (§421); the Accusative is the same as that of the extent of space (§ 425).

424. Special constructions of time are the following:—
a. The Ablative of time within which sometimes takes in, and the Accusative of time how long per, for greater precision:—

in diēbus proximīs decem (Iug. 28), within the next ten days.

lūdī per decem diēs (Cat. iii. 20), games for ten days.

b. Duration of time is occasionally expressed by the Ablative:—

mīlitēs quīnque hōrīs proelium sustinuerant (B.C. i. 47), the men had sustained the fight five hours.

In this use the period of time is regarded as that within which the act is done, and it is only implied that the act lasted through the period. Cf. inter annōs quattuordecim (B. G. i. 36), for fourteen years.
c. Time during which or within which may be expressed by the Accusative or Ablative of a noun in the singular, with an ordinal numeral:—

quīntō diē, within [just] four days (lit. on the fifth day). [The Romans counted both ends, see §631. d.]

rēgnat iam sextum annum, he has reigned going on six years.

d. Many expressions have in Latin the construction of time when, where in English the main idea is rather of place:—

pūgnā Cannēnsī (or, apud Cannās), in the field at Cannæ.

lūdīs Rōmānīs, at the Roman games.

omnibus Gallicīs bellīs, in all the Gallic wars.

e. In many idiomatic expressions of time, the Accusative with ad, in, or sub is used. Such are the following:—

supplicātiō dēcrēta est in Kalendās Iānuāriās, a thanksgiving was voted for the first of January.

convēnērunt ad diem, they assempled on the [appointed] day.

ar vesperum, till evening; sub vesperum, towards evening.

sub idem tempus, about the same time; sub noctem, at nightfall.

f. Distance of time before or after anything is variously expressed:

post (ante) trēs annōs, post tertium annum, trēs post annōs, tertium post annum, tribus post annīs, tertiō post annō (§ 414), three years after.

tribus annīs (tertiō annō) post exsilium (postquam ēiectus est), three years after his exile.

hīs tribus proximīs annīs, within the last three years.

paucīs annīs, a few years hence.

abhinc annōs trēs (tribus annīs), ante hōs trēs annōs, three years ago.

triennium est cum (trēs annī sunt cum), it is three years since.

octāvō mēnse quam, the eighth month after (see § 434. N.).

g. In Dates the phrase ante diem (a. d.) with an ordinal, or the ordinal alone, is followed by an accusative, like a preposition; and the phrase itself may also by governed by a preposition. The year is expressed by the names of the consuls in the ablative absolute, usually without a conjunction (§ 419. a):—

is diēs erat a. d. v. Kal. Apr. (quīntum Kalendās Aprīlīs) L. Pīsōne A. Gabīniō cōnsulibus (B.G. i. 6) that day was the 5th before the calends of April (March 28), in the consulship of Piso and Gabinius.

in a. d. v. Kal. Nov. (Cat. i. 7) to the 5th day before the calends of November (Oct. 28).

xv. Kal. Sextīlis, the 15th day before the calends of August (July 18). [Full form: quīntō decimō diē ante Kalendās.]

For the Roman Calendar, see § 631.

Extent of Space

425. Extent of Space is expressed by the Accusative:—

fossās quīndecim pedēs lātās (B.G. vii 72), trenches fifteen feet broad.

prōgressus mīlia passuum circiter duodecim (id. v. 9), having advanced about twelve miles.

in omnī vītā suā quemque ā rectā cōnscientiā trānsversum unguem nōn oportet discēdere (quoted in Att. xiii. 20), in all one's life, one should not depart a nail's breadth from straightforward conscience.

NOTE.—This Accusative denotes the object through or over which the action takes place, and is kindred with the Accusative of the End of Motion (§ 427. 2).

a. Measure is often expressed by the Genitive of Quality (§ 345. b):

vāllum duodecim pedum (B.G. vii. 72), a rampart of twelve feet (in height).

b. Distance when considered as extent of space is put in the Accusative; when considered as degree of difference, in the Ablative (§ 414):—

mīlia passuum tria ab eōrum castrīs castra pōnit (B.G. i. 22), he pitches his camp three miles from their camp.

quīnque diērum iter abest (Liv. xxx. 29), it is distant five days' march.

trīgintā mīlibus passuum īnfra eum locum (B. G. vi. 35), thirty miles below that place (below by thirty miles).

Relations of Place

426. Relations of Place¹⁹⁷ are expressed as follows:—
1. The place from which, by the Ablative with ab, dē, or ex.
2. The place to which (or end of motion), by the Accusative with ad or in.
3. The place where, by the Ablative with in (Locative Ablative). Examples are:—
1. Place from which:—

ā septentriōne, from the north.

cum ā vōbīs discesserō (Cato M. 79), when I leave you.

dē prōvinciā dēcēdere, to come away from one's province.

dē monte, down from the mountain.

negōtiātor ex Āfricā (Verr. ii. 1. 14), a merchant from Africa.

ex Brittanniā obsidēs mīsērunt (B. G. iv. 38), they sent hostages from Britain.

Mōsa prōfluit ex monte Vosegō (id. iv. 10), the Meuse (flows from) rises in the Vosges mountains.

2. Place to which (end of motion):—

nocte ad Nerviōs pervēnērunt (B.G. ii. 17), they came by night to the Nervii.

adībam ad istum fundum (Caec. 82), I was going to that estate.

in Āfricam nāvigāvit, he sailed to Africa; in Ītaliam profectus, gone to Italy.

lēgātum in Treverōs mittit (B.G. iii. 11), he sends his leiutenant into the [country of the] Treveri.

3. Place where:—

in hāc urbe vītam dēgit, he passed his life in the city.

sī in Galliā remanērent (B.G. iv. 8), if they remained in Gaul.

dum haec in Venetīs geruntur (id. iii. 17), while this was going on among the Veneti.

oppidum in īnsulā positum (id. vii. 58), a town situated on an island.

427. With names of towns and small islands, and with domus and rūs, the Relations of Place are expressed as follows:—
1. The place from which, by the Ablative without a preposition.
2. The place to which, by the Accusative without a preposition.
3. The place where, by the Locative.¹⁹⁸ Examples are:—
1. Place from which:—

Rōmā perfectus, having set out from Rome; Rōmā abesse, to be absent from Rome.

domō abīre, to leave home; rūre reversus, having returned from the country.

2. Place to which:—

cum Rōmam sextō diē Mutinā vēnisset (Fam. xi. 6 1), when he had come to Rome from Modena in five days (on the sixth day).

Dēlō Rhodum nāvigāre, to sail from Delos to Rhodes.

rūs ībō, I shall go into the country.

domum iit, he went home.¹⁹⁹ [So, suās domōs abīre, to go to their homes.]

3. Place where (or at which):—

=46mm=.333333em plus8pt minus2pt

16pt Rōmae, at Rome (Rōma).

16pt Rhodī, at Rhodes (Rhodus).

16pt Samī, at Samos.

16pt Tīburī or Tībure, at Tibur.

16pt Phillipīs, at Phillipi.

16pt domī (rarely domuī), at home.

=52mm=.333333em plus8pt minus2pt

Athēnīs, at Athens (Athēnae).

Lānuvī, at Lanuvium.

Cyprī, at Cyprus.

Cūribus, at Cures.

Capreīs, at Capri (Capreae).

rūrī, in the country.

a. The Locative Case is also preserved in the following nouns, which are used (like names of towns) without a preposition:— =0pt

16pt bellī, mīlitiae (in contrast to domī), abroad, in military service.

=46mm=.333333em plus8pt minus2pt

16pt humī, on the ground.

16pt forīs, out of doors.

16pt herī (-e), yesterday.

=52mm=.333333em plus8pt minus2pt

vesperī (-e), in the evening.

animī (see § 358).

temperī, betimes.

=16pt =32pt =1 = =32pt =1 Cf. īnfēlicī arborī (Liv. i. 26), on the ill-omened (barren) tree; terrā marīque, by land and sea.

428. Special uses of place from which, to which, and where are the following:—
a. With names of towns and small islands ab is often used to denote from the vicinity of, and ad to denote towards, to the neighborhood of:—

ut ā Mutinā discēderet (Phil. xiv. 4), that he should retire from Modena (which he was besieging).

erat ā Gergoviā dēspectus in castra (B.G. vii. 45), there was fron above Gervovia a view into the camp.

ad Alesiam proficīscuntur (id. vii. 76), they set out for Alesia.

ad Alesiam perveniunt (id. vii. 79), they arrive at Alesia (i.e. in the neighborhood of the town).

D. Laelius cum classe ad Brundisium vēnit (B. C. iii. 100), Decimus Laelius came to Brundisium with a fleet (arriving in the harbor).

b. The general words urbs, oppidum, īnsula require a preposition to express the place from which, to which, or where:—

=46mm=.333333em plus8pt minus2pt

16ptab (ex) urbe, from the city.

16ptad urbem, to the city.

16ptin urbem, into the city.

16ptad urbem Rōmam (Rōmam ad urbem), to the city of Rome.

=52mm=.333333em plus8pt minus2pt

in urbe, in the city.

Rōmae in urbe, in the city of Rome.

Rōmā ex urbe, from the city of Rome.

c. With the name of a country, ad denotes to the borders; in with the accusative, into the country itself. Similarly ab denotes away from the outside; ex, out of the interior. Thus ad Ītaliam pervēnit would mean he came to the frontier, regardless of the destination; in Ītaliam, he went to Italy, i.e. to a place within it, to Rome, for instance. So ab Ītalia profectus est would mean he came away from the frontier, regardless of the original starting-point; ex Ītaliā, he came from Italy, from within, as from Rome, for instance.
d. With all names of places at, meaning near (not in), is expressed by ad or apud with the accusative.

pūgna ad Cannās, the fight at Cannae.

conchās ad Câiētam legunt (De Or. ii. 22), at Caieta (along the shore).

ad (apud) īnferōs, in the world below (near, or among, those below).

ad forīs, at the doors.

ad iānuam, at the door.

NOTE 1.—In the neighborhood of may be expressed by circā with the accusative; among, by apud with the accusative:—

=46mm=.333333em plus8pt minus2pt

16ptapud Graecōs, among the Greeks.

16ptapud Solēnsīs (Leg. ii. 41), at Soli.

=52mm=.333333em plus8pt minus2pt

apud me, at my house.

circā Capuam, round about Capua.

NOTE 2.—In citing an author, apud is regularly used; in citing a particular work, in. Thus apud Xenophōntem, in Xenophon; but in Xenophontis Oeconomicō, in Xenophon's Œconomicus.

e. Large islands, and all places when thought of as a territory and not as a locality, are treated like names of countries:—

in Siciliā, in Sicily.

in Ithacā leporēs illatī moriuntur (Plin. H. N. viii. 226), in Ithaca hares, when carried there, die. [Ulysses lives at Ithaca would require Ithacae.]

f. The Ablative without a preposition is used to denote the place from which in certain idiomatic expressions:—

cessisset patriā (Mil. 68), he would have left his country.

patriā pellere, to drive out of the country.

manū mittere, to emancipate (let go from the hand).

g. The poets and later writers often omit the preposition with the place from which or to which when it would be required in classical prose:—

mānīs Acheronte remissōs (Aen. v. 99), the spirits returned from Acheron.

Scythiā profectī (Q. C. iv. 12.11), setting out from Scythia.

Ītaliam Lāvīniaque vēnit lītora (Aen. i. 2), he came to Italy and the Lavinian shores.

terram Hesperiam veniēs (id. ii. 781), you shall come to the Hesperian land.

Aegyptum proficīscitur (Tac. Ann. ii. 59), he sets out for Egypt.

h. In poetry the place to which is often expressed by the Dative, occasionally also in later prose:—

it clāmor caelō (Aen. v. 451), a shout goes up to the sky.

facilis dēscēnsus Avernō (id. vi. 126), easy is the descent to Avernus.

diadēma capitī repōnere iussit (Val. Max. v. 1. 9), he ordered him to put back the diadem on his head.

i. The preposition is not used with the supine in -um (§ 509) and in the following old phrases:—

=46mm=.333333em plus8pt minus2pt

16ptexsequiās īre, to go to the funeral.

16ptpessum īre, to go to ruin.

16ptvēnum dare, to sell (give to sale). [Hence vēndere.]

16ptvēnum īre, to be sold (go to sale). [Hence vēnīre.]

16ptforās (used as adverb), out: as,— forās ēgredī, to go out of doors.

16ptsuppetiās advenīre, to come to one's assistance.

=52mm=.333333em plus8pt minus2pt

īnfitiās īre, to resort to denial.

pessum dare, to ruin (cf. perdō.)

j. When two or more names of place are used with a verb of motion, each must be under its own construction:—

quadriduō quō haec gesta sunt rēs ad Chrȳsogonum in castra L. Sullae Volāterrās dēfertur (Rosc. Am. 20), within four days after this was done, the matter was reported TO Chrysogonus IN Sulla's camp AT Volaterræ.

NOTE.—The accusative with or without a preposition is often used in Latin when motion to a place is implied but not expressed in English (see k, N.).

k. Domum denoting the place to which, and the locative domī, may be modified by a possessive pronoun or a genitive:—

domum rēgis (Deiot. 17), to the king's house. [but also in M. Laecae domum (Cat. i. 8), to Marcus Læca's house.]

domī meae, at my house; domī Caesaris, at Cæsar's house.

domī suae vel aliēnae, at his own or another's house.

NOTE.—At times when thus modified, and regularly when otherwise modified, in domum or in domō is used:—

in domum prīvātam conveniunt (Tac. H. iv. 55), they come together in a private house.

in Mārcī Crassī castissimā domō (Cael. 9), in the chaste home of Marcus Crassus. [Cf. ex Anniānā Milōnia domō. § 302. e.]

429. The place where is denoted by the Ablative without a preposition in the following instances:—
1. Often in indefinite words, such as locō, parte, etc.:—

quibus locō positīs (De Or. iii. 153), when these are set in position.

quā parte bellī vīcerant (Liv. xxi. 22), the branch of warfare in which they were victorious.

locīs certīs horrea cōnstituit (B. C. iii. 32), he established granaries in particular places.

2. Frequently with nouns which are qualified by adjectives (regularly when tōtus is used):—

mediā urbe (Liv. i. 33), in the middle of the city.

tōtā Siciliā (Verr. iv. 51), throughout Sicily (in the whold of Sicily).

tōtā Tarracīnā (De Or. ii. 240), in all Tarracina.

cūnctā Asiā atque Graeciā (Manil. 12), throughout the whole of Asia and Greece too.

3. In many idiomatic expressions which have lost the idea of place:—

pendēmus animīs (Tusc. i. 96), we are in suspense of mind (in our minds).

socius perīculīs vōbīscum aderō (Iug. 85. 47), I will be present with you, a companion in dangers.

4. Freely in poetry:—

lītore curvō (Aen. iii. 16), on the winding shore.

antrō sēclūsa relinquit (id. iii. 446), she leaves them shut up in the cave.

Ēpirō, Hesperiā (id. iii. 503), in Epirus, in Hesperia.

premit altum corde dolōrem (id. i. 209), he keeps down the pain deep in his heart.

a. The way by which is put in the Ablative without a preposition:

viā breviōre equitēs praemīsī (Fam. x. 9), I sent forward the cavalry by a shorter road.

Aegaeō marī trāiēcit (Liv. xxxvii. 14), he crossed by way of the Ægean sea.

prōvehimur pelagō (Aen. iii. 506), we sail forth over the sea.

NOTE.—In this case the way by which is conceived as the means of passage.

b. Position is frequently expressed by the Ablative with ab (rarely ex), properly meaning from:—²⁰⁰

ā tergō, in the rear; ā sinistrā, on the left hand. [Cf. hinc, on this side.]

ā parte Pompêiānā, on the side of Pompey.

ex alterā parte, on the other side.

māgnā ex parte, in a great degree (from, i.e. in, a great part).

430. Verbs of placing, though implying motion, take the construction of the place where:— Such are pōnō, locō, collocō, statuō, cōnstituō, etc.:—

quī in sēde ac domō collocāvit (Par. 25), who put [one] into his place and home.

statuitur eques Rōmānus in Aprōnī convīviō (Verr. iii. 62), a Roman knight is brought into a banquet of Apronius.

īnsula Dēlos in Aegaeō marī posita (Manil. 55), the island of Delos, situated in the Ægean sea.

sī in ūnō Pompêiō omnia pōnerētis (id. 59), if you made everything depend on Pompey alone.

NOTE.—Compounds of pōnō take verious constructions (see the Lexicon under each word).

431. Several verbs are followed by the Ablative. These are acquiēscō, dēlector, laetor, gaudeō, glōrior, nītor, stō, maneō, fīdō, cōnfīdō, cōnsistō, contineor.

nōminibus veretum glōriantur (Or. 169), they glory in the names of the ancients. [Also, dē dīvitiīs (in virtūte, circā rem, aliquid, haec) glōriārī.]

spē nītī (Att. iii. 9), to rely on hope.

prūdentiā fidēns (Off. i. 81), trusting in prudence.

NOTE.—The ablative with these verbs sometimes takes the preposition in (but fīdō is late), and the ablative with them is probably locative. Thus,—in quibus causa nītitur (Cael. 25), on whom the case depends. With several of these verbs the neuter Accusative fo mponouns is often found. For fīdō and cōnfīdō with the Dative, see § 367.

a. The verbals frētus, contentus, and laetus take the Locative Ablative:—

frētus grātiā Brūtī (Att. v. 21. 12), relying on the favor of Brutus.

laetus praedā, rejoicing in the booty.

contentus sorte, content with his lot. [Possibly Ablative of Cause.]

nōn fuit contentus glōriā (Dom. 101), he was not content with the glory.

NOTE.—So intentus, rarely: as,—aliquō negōtiō intentus (Sall. Cat. 2), intent on some occupation.

SPECIAL USES OF PREPOSITIONS²⁰¹

Adverbs and Prepositions

432. Certain Adverbs and Adjectives are sometimes used as Prepositions:—
a. The adverbs prīdiē, postrīdiē, propius, proximē, less frequently the adjectives propior and proximus, may be followed by the Accusative:—

prīdiē Nōnās Mâiās (Att. ii. 11), the day before the Nones of May (see § 631).

postrīdiē lūdōs (Att. xvi. 4) the day after the games.

proprius perīculum (Liv. xxi. 1), nearer to danger.

propior montem (Iug. 49), nearer the hill.

proximus mare ōceanum (B.G. iii. 7), nearest the ocean.

NOTE.—Prīdiē and postrīdiē take also the Genitive (§ 359. b.). Propior, propius, proximus, and proximē, take also the Dative, or the Ablative with ab:—

proprius Tiberī quam Thermopylīs (Nep. Hann. 8), nearer to the Tiber than to Thermopylae.

Sugambrī quī sunt proximī Rhēnō (B.G. vi. 35), the Sugambri, who are nearest to the Rhine.

proximus ā postrēmō (Or. 217), next to the last.

b. Ūsque sometimes takes the Accusative, but ūsque as is much more common:—

terminōs ūsque Libyae (Iust. i. 1. 5), to the bounds of Libya.

ūqsue ad castra hostium (B.G. i. 51), to the enemy's camp.

c. The adverbs palam, procul, simul, may be used as prepositions and take the Ablative:—

rem crēditōrī palam populō solvit (Liv. vi. 14), he paid the debt to his creditor in the presence of the people.

haud procul castrīs in modum mūnicipī exstrūcta (Tac. H. iv. 22), not far from the camp, built up like a town.

simul nōbīs habitat barbarus (Ov. Tr. v. 10. 29), close among us dwells the barbarian.

NOTE.—But simul regularly takes cum; procul is usually followed by ab in classic writers; and the use of palam as a preposition is comparatively late.

d. The adverb clam is found in early Latin with the Accusative, also once with the Genitive and once in classical Latin with the Ablative:—

clam mātrem suam (Pl. Mil. 112), unknown to his mother.

clam patris (id. Merc. 43), without his father's knowledge.

clam vōbīs (B.C. ii. 32. 8), without your knowledge.

433. Prepositions often retain their original meaning as Adverbs:—
1. Ante and post in relations of time:—

quōs paulō ante dīximus (Brut. 32), whom I mentioned a little while ago.

post tribus diēbus, three days after (cf. § 424. f).

2. Adversus, circiter, prope:—

nēmō adversus ībat (Liv. xxxvii. 13. 8), no one went out in opposition.

circiter pars quārta (Sall. Cat. 56), about the fourth part.

prope exanimātus, nearly lifeless.

3. Ā or ab, off, in expressions of distance, with the Ablative of Degree of Difference (§ 414):—

ā mīlibus passuum circiter duōbus Rōmānōrum adventum exspectābant (B.G. v. 32), at a distance of about two miles (about two miles off) they awaited the approach of the Romans.

4. In general, prepositions ending in -ā:—

Aeolus haec contrā (Aen. i. 76), thus Æolus in reply.

forte fuit iūxtā tumulus (id. iii. 22), there happened to be a mound close by.

434. Some Prepositions and Adverbs which imply comparison are followed, like comparatives, by quam, which may be separated by several words, or even clauses. Such words are ante, prius, post, posteā, prīdiē, postrīdiē; also magis and prae in compounds:—

neque ante dīmīsit eum quam fidem dedit (Liv. xxxix. 10), nor did he let him go until he gave a pledge.

post diem tertium quam dīxerat (Mil. 44), the third day after he said it.

Catō ipse iam servīre quam pūgnāre māvult (Att. vii. 15), Cato himself by this time had rather be a slave than fight.

Gallōrum quam Rōmānōrum imperiā praeferre (B.G. i. 17), [they] prefer the rule of Gauls to that of Romans.

NOTE.—The ablative of time is sometimes followed by quam in the same way (§ 424. f.): as,—octavō mēnse quam (Liv. xxi. 15), within eight months after, etc.

435. The following Prepositions sometimes come after their nouns: ad, citrā, circum, contrā, dē, ē (ex), inter, iūxtā, penes, propter, ultrā; so regularly tenus and versus, and occasionally others:—

[ūsus] quem penes arbitrium est et iūs et norma loquendī (Hor. A. P. 72), custom, under whose control is the choice, right, and rule of speech.

cûius ā mē corpus est cremātum, quod contrā decuit ab illō meum (Cat. M. 84), whose body I burned [on the funeral pile], while on the contrary (contrary to which) mine should have been burned by him.

SYNTAX OF THE VERB

MOODS AND TENSES

436. The Syntax of the Verb relates chiefly to the use of the Moods (which express the manner in which the action is conceived) and the Tenses (which express the time of the action). There is no difference in origin between mood and tense; and hence the uses of mood and tense frequently cross each other. Thus the tenses sometimes have modal significations (compare indicitave in apodosis, § 517. c; future for imperative, § 449. b); and the moods sometimes express time (compare subjunctive in future conditions, § 516. b, and notice the want of a future subjunctive). The parent language had, besides the Imperative mood, two or more forms with modal signification. Of these, the Subjunctive appears with two sets of terminations, -ā-m, -ā-s, in the present tense (moneam, dīcam), and -ē-m, -ē-s in the present (amem) or other tenses (essem, dīxissem). The Optative was formed by iē, ī-, with the present stem (sim, duim) or the perfect (dīxerim). (See detalis in §§ 168, 169.) Each mood has two general classes or ranges of meaning. The uses of the Subjunctive may all be classed under the general ideas of will or desire and of action vividly conceived; and the uses of the Optative under the general ideas of with and of action vaguely conceived. It must not be supposed, however, that in any given construction either the subjunctive or the optative was deliberately used because it denoted conception or possibility. On the contrary, each construction has had its own line of development from more tangible and literal forms of thought to more vague and ideal; and by the process the mood used came to have in each case a special meaning, which was afterwards habitually associated with is in that construction. Similar developments have taken place in English. Thus, the expression I would do this has become equivalent to a mild command, while by analysis it is seen to be the apodosis of a present condition contrary to fact (§ 517): if I were you, etc. By further analysis, I would do is seen to have meant, originally, I should have wished (or I did wish) to do. In Latin, the original Subjunctive and the Optative became confounded in meaning and in form, and were merged in the Subjunctive, at first in the present tense. The new tense-forms of the subjunctive were formed²⁰², and to these the original as well as the derived meanings of both moods became attached (see § 438). All the independent uses of hte Latin subjunctive are thus to be accounted for. The dependent uses of the subjunctive seem to have arisen from the employment of some independent subjunctive construction in connection with a main statement. Most frequently the main statement is prefixed to a sentence containing a subjunctive, as a more complete expression of a complex idea (§ 268). Thus a question implying a general negative (quīn rogem? why shouldn't I ask?) might have the general negative expressed in a prefixed statement (nūlla causa est, there is no reason); or abeat, let him go away, may be expanded into sine abeat. When such a combination comes into habitual use, the original meaning of the subjunctive partially or wholly disappears and a new meaning arises by implication. Thus, in mīsit lēgātōs quī dīcerent, he sent ambassadors to say (i.e. who should say), the original hortatory sense of the subjunctive is partially lost, and the mood becomes in part an expression of purpose. Similar processes may be seen in the growth of Apodosis. Thus, tolle hanc opīniōnem, lūctum sustuleris, remove this notion, you will have done away with grief (i.e. if you remove, etc.). The Infinitive is originally a verbal noun (§ 451), modifying a verb like other nouns: volō vidēre, lie. ``I wish for-seeing'': compare English ``what went ye out for to see?'' But in Latin it has been surprisingly developed, so as to have forms for tense, and some proper modal characteristics, and to be used as a substitute for finite moods. The other noun and adjective forms of the verb have been develped in various ways, which are treated under their respective heads below. The proper Verbal Constructions may be thus classified:—

I. Indicative:	Direct Assertion or Question (§ 437).
II. Subjunctive:	a. =1.5cm Independent uses:	1. Exhortation or Command (§ 439).
		2. Concession (§ 440).
		3. Wish (§ 441).
		4. Question of Doubt etc. (§ 444).
		5. Possibility or Contingency (§ 446).
	b. =1.5cm Dependent uses:	1. Conditions	Future (less vivid) (§516. b, c)
			Contrary to Fact (§ 517).
		2. Purpose (with ut, nē) (§ 531).
		3. Characteristic (Relative Clause) (§ 535).
		4. Result (with ut, ut nōn) (§ 537).
		5. Time (with cum) (§ 546).
		6. Intermediate (Indirect Discourse) (§ 592).
		7. Indirect Questions or Commands (§§ 574, 588).
III. Imperative:	1. Direct Commands (often Subjunctive) (§ 448).
		2. Statutes, Laws, and Wills (§ 449. 2).
		3. Prohibitions (early or poetic use) (§ 450. a).
IV. Infinitive:	a. Subject of esse and Impersonal Verbs (§§ 452, 454).
	b. =1.5cm Objective Constructions:	1. Complementary Infinitive (§ 456).
		2. Indirect Discourse (with Subject Accusative) (§ 580).
	c. Idiomatic uses:	1. Purpose (poetic or Greek use) (§ 460).
		2. Exclamation (with Subject Accusative) (§ 462).
		3. Historical Infinitive (§ 463).

437. The Indicative is the mood of direct assertions or questions when there is no modification of the verbal idea except that of time.
a. The Indicative is sometimes used where the English idiom would suggest the Subjunctive:—

longum est, it would be tedious [if, etc.]; satius erat, it would have been better [if, etc.]; persequī possum, I might follow up [in detail].

NOTE.—Substitutes for the Indicative are (1) the Historical Infinitive (§ 463), and (2) the Infinitive in Indirect Discourse (§ 580).

For the Infinitive in Conditions, see §§ 515, 516; for the Indicitive in implied Commands, see § 449. b.

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD

438. The Subjunctive in general expresses the verbal idea with some modification²⁰³ such as is expressed in English by auxiliaries, by the infinitive, or by the rare subjunctive (§ 157. b).
a. The Subjunctive is used independently to express — 1. An Exhortation or Command (Hortatory Subjunctive: § 439). 2. A Concession (Concessive Subjunctive: § 440). 3. A Wish (Optative Subjunctive: § 441). 4. A Question of Doubt etc. (Deliberative Subjunctive: § 444). 5. A Possibility or Contingency (Potential Subjunctive: § 446).

For the special idiomatic uses of the Subjunctive in Apodosis, see § 514.

b. The Subjunctive is used in dependent clauses to express — 1. Condition: future or contrary to fact (§§ 516. b, c, 517). 2. Purpose (Final, § 531). 3. Characteristic (§ 535). 4. Result (Consecutive, § 537). 5. Time (Temporal, § 546). 6. Indirect Question (§ 574).
c. The Subjunctive is also used with Conditional Particles of Comparison (§ 524), and in subordinate clauses in the Indirect Discourse (§ 580).

SUBJUNCTIVE IN INDEPENDENT SENTENCES

Hortatory Subjunctive

439. The Hortatory Subjunctive is used in the present tense to express an exhortation or a command. The negative is nē.

hōs latrōnēs interficiāmus (B. G. vii. 38), let us kill these robbers.

caveant intemperantiam, meminerint verēcundiae (Off. i. 122), let them shun excess and cherish modesty.

NOTE 1.—notetext
The hortatory subjunctive occurs rarely in the perfect (except in prohibitions: § 450): as,— Epicūrus hōc vīderit (Acad. ii. 19), let Epicurus look to this.
NOTE 2.—notetext
The term hortatory subjunctive is sometimes restricted to the first person plural, the second and third persons being designated as the jussive subjunctive; but the constructions are substantially identical.
NOTE 3.—notetext
Once in Cicero and occasionally in the poets and later writers the negative with the hortatory subjunctive is nōn: as, — ā lēgibus nōn recēdāmus (Clu. 155), let us not abandon the laws.
a. The Second Person of the hortatory subjunctive is used only of an indefinite subject, except in prohibitions, in early Latin, and in poetry:—

iniūriās fortūnae, quās ferre nequeās, dēfugiendō relinquās (Tusc. v. 118), the wrongs of fortune, which you cannot bear, leave behind by flight.

exoriāre aliquis ultor (Aen. iv. 625), rise, some avenger.

istō bonō ūtāre dum adsit, cum absit nē requīrās (Cat. M. 33), use this blessing while it is present; when it is wanting do not regret it.

doceās iter et sacra ōstia pandās (Aen. vi. 109), show us the way and lay open the sacred portals.

For Negative Commands (prohibitions), see § 450.

b. The Imperfect and Pluperfect of the hortatory subjunctive denote an unfulfilled obligation in past time:—

morerētur, inquiēs (Rab. Post. 29), he should have died, you will say.

potius docēret (Off. iii. 88), he should rather have taught.

nē poposcissēs (Att. ii. 1. 3), you should not have asked.

saltem aliquid dē pondere dētrāxisset (Fin. iv. 57), at least he should have taken something from the weight.

NOTE 1.—In this construction the Pluperfect usually differs from the Imperfect only in more clearly representing the time for action as momentary or as past.

NOTE 2.—notetext
This use of the subjunctive is carefully to be distinguished from the potential use (§ 446). The difference is indicated by the translation, should or ought (not would or might).

440. The Hortatory Subjunctive is used to express a concession.²⁰⁴ The Present is used for present time, the Perfect for past. The negative is nē.

sit fūr, sit sacrilegus: at est bonus imperātor (Verr. v. 4), grant he is a thief, a godless wretch: yet he is a good general.

fuerit aliīs; tibi quandō esse coepit (Verr. ii. 1. 37), suppose he was [so] to others; when did he begin to be to you?

nēmō is umquam fuit: nē fuerit (Or. 101), there never was such a one [you will say]: granted (let there not have been).

nē sit summum malum dolor, malum certē est (Tusc. ii. 14), granted that pain is not the greatest evil, at least it is an evil.

NOTE.—The concessive subjunctive with quamvīs and licet is originally hortatory (§ 527. a, b).

For other methods of expressing Concession, see § 527.

For the Hortatory Subjunctive denoting a Proviso, see § 528. a.

Optative Subjunctive

441. The Optative Subjunctive is used to express a Wish. The present tense denotes the wish as possible, the imperfect as unaccomplished in present time, the pluperfect as unaccomplished in past time. The negative is nē:—

ita vīvam (Att. v. 15), as true as I live, so may I live.

ne vīvam sī sciō (id. iv. 16. 8), I wish I may not live if I know.

dī tē perduint (Deiot. 21), the gods confound thee!

valeant, valeant cīvēs meī; sint incolumēs (Mil. 93), farewell, farewell to my fellow-citizens; may they be secure from harm.

dī facerent sine patre forem (Ov. M. viii. 72), would that the gods allowed me to be without a father (but they do not) !

a. The perfect subjunctive in a wish is archaic:—

dī faxint (Fam. xiv. 3. 3), may the gods grant.

quod dī ōmen āverterint (Phil. xii. 14, in a religious formula), and may the gods avert this omen.

442. The Optative Subjunctive is often preceded by the particle utinam; so regularly in the imperfect and pluperfect :—

falsus utinam vātēs sim (Liv. xxi. 10. 10), I wish I may be a false prophet.

utinam Clōdius vīveret (Mil. 103), would that Clodius were now alive.

utinam mē mortuum vīdissēs (Q. Fr. i. 3. 1), would you had seen me dead.

utinam nē vērē scrīberem (Fam. v. 17. 3), would that I were not writing the truth.

NOTE.—Utinam nōn is occasionally used instead of utinam nē: as,— utinam susceptus nōn essem (Att. ix. 9. 3), would that I had not been born.

a. In poetry and old Latin utī or ut often introduces the optative subjunctive; and in poetry sī or ō sī with the subjunctive sometimes expresses a wish:—

ut pereat positum rōbīgine tēlum (Hor. S. ii. 1. 43), may the weapon unused perish with rust.

ō sī angulus ille accēdat (id. ii. 6. 8), O if that corner might only be added!

sī nunc sē nōbīs ille aureus rāmus ostendat (Aen. vi. 187), if now that golden branch would only show itself to us!

NOTE 1.—The subjunctive with utī (ut) or utinam was originally deliberative, meaning how may I, etc. (§ 444). The subjunctive with sī or ō sī is a protasis (§ 512. a), the apodosis not being expressed.

NOTE 2.—The subjunctive of wish without a particle is seldom found in the imperfect or pluperfect except by sequence of tenses in Indirect Discourse (§ 585): as,— ac venerāta Cerēs, ita culmō surgeret altō (Hor. S. ii. 2. 124), and Ceres worshipped [with libations] that so she might rise with tall stalk. [It addressing the goddess directly the prayer would be: ita surgās.]

b. Velim and vellem, and their compounds, with a subjunctive or infinitive, are often equivalent to an optative subjunctive:—

velim tibi persuādeās (Fam. ix. 13. 2), I should like to have you believe (I should wish that you would persuade yourself).

dē Menedēmō vellem vērum fuisset, dē rēgīnā velim vērum sit (Att. xv. 4. 4), about Menedemus I wish it had been true; about the queen I wish it may be.

nōllem accidisset tempus (Fam. iii. 10. 2), I wish the time never had come.

māllem Cerberum metuerēs (Tusc. i. 12), I had rather have had you afraid of Cerberus (I should have preferred that you feared Cerberus).

NOTE.—Velim etc., in this use, are either potential subjunctives, or apodoses with the protasis omitted (§ 447. 1. N.). The thing wished may be regarded as a substantive clause used as object of the verb of wishing (§ 565. N. 1).

Deliberative Subjunctive

443. The Subjunctive was used in sentences of interrogative form, at first when the speaker wished information in regard to the will or desire of the person addressed. The mood was therefore hortatory in origin. But such questions when addressed by the speaker to himself, as if asking his own advice, become deliberative or, not infrequently, merely exclamatory. In such cases the mood often approaches the meaning of the Potential (see § 445). In these uses the subjunctive is often called Deliberative or Dubitative.

444. The Subjunctive is used in questions implying (1) doubt, indignation, or (2) an impossibility of the thing's being done. The negative is nōn.

quid agam, iūdicēs? quō mē vertam (Verr. v. 2), what am I to do, judges? whither shall I turn?

etiamne eam salūtem (Pl. Rud. 1275), shall I greet her?

quid hōc homine faciās? quod supplicium dīgnum libīdinī êius inveniās (Verr. ii. 40), what are you to do with this man? what fit penalty can you devise for his wantonness?

an ego nōn venīrem (Phil. ii. 3), what, should I not have come?

quid dīcerem (Att. vi. 3. 9), what was I to say?

quis enim cēlāverit īgnem (Ov. H. xv. 7), who could conceal the flame?

NOTE.—The hortatory origin of some of these questions is obvious. Thus,— quid faciāmus? f̄aciāmus [aliquid], quid? let us do — what? (Compare the expanded form quid vīs faciāmus? what do you wish us to do)? Once established, it was readily transferred to the past: quid faciam? what AM I to do? quid facerem? what WAS I to do? Questions implying impossibility, however, cannot be distinguished from Apodosis (cf. § 517).

a. In many cases the question has become a mere exclamation, rejecting a suggested possibility:

mihi umquam bonōrum praesidium dēfutūrum putārem (Mil. 94), could 1 think that the defence of good men would ever fail me!

NOTE.—The indicative is sometimes used in deliberative questions: as,— quid agō, what am I to do?

Potential Subjunctive

445. Of the two principal uses of the Subjunctive in independent sentences (cf. § 436), the second, or Potential Subjunctive,²⁰⁵ is found in a variety of sentence-forms having as their common element the fact that the mood represents the action as merely conceived or possible, not as desired (hortatory, optative) or real (indicative). Some of these uses are very old and may go back to the Indo-European parent speech, but no satisfactory connection between the Potential and the Hortatory and Optative Subjunctive has been traced. There is no single English equivalent for the Potential Subjunctive; the mood must be rendered, according to circumstances, by the auxiliaries would, should, may, might, can, could.

446. The Potential Subjunctive is used to suggest an action as possible or conceivable. The negative is nōn. In this use the Present and the Perfect refer without distinction to the immediate future; the Imperfect (occasionally the Perfect) to past time; the Pluperfect (which is rare) to what might have happened.

447. The Potential Subjunctive has the following uses:—
1. In cautious or modest assertions in the first person singular of expressions of saying, thinking, or wishing (present or perfect):—

pāce tuā dīxerim (Mil. 103), I would say by your leave.

haud sciam an (Lael. 51), I should incline to think.

tū velim sīc exīstimēs (Fam. xii. 6), I should like you to think so.

certum affīrmāre nōn ausim (Liv. iii. 23), I should not dare to assert as sure.

NOTE.—Vellem, nōllem, or māllem expressing an unfulfilled wish in present time may be classed as independent potential subjunctive or as the apodosis of an unexpressed condition (§ 521): as — vellem adesset M. Antōnius (Phil. i. 16), I could wish Antony were here.

2. In the indefinite second person singular of verbs of saying, thinking, and the like (present or imperfect):—

crēdās nōn dē puerō scrīptum sed ā puerō (Plin. Ep. iv. 7. 7), you would think that it was written not about a boy but by a boy.

crēderēs victōs (Liv. ii. 43. 9), you would have thought them conquered.

reōs dīcerēs (id. ii. 35. 5), you would have said they were culprits.

vidērēs susurrōs (Hor. S. ii. 8. 77), you might have seen them whispering (lit. whispers).

fretō assimilāre possīs (Ov. M. v. 6), you might compare it to a sea.

3. With other verbs, in all persons, when some word or phrase in the context implies that the action is expressed as merely possible or conceivable:—

nīl ego contulerim iūcundō sānus amīcō (Hor. S. i. 5. 44), when in my senses I should compare nothing with an interesting friend.

fortūnam citius reperiās quam retineās (Pub. Syr. 168), you may sooner find fortune than keep it.

aliquis dīcat (Ter. And. 640), somebody may say.

NOTE.—In this use the subjunctive may be regarded as the apodosis of an undeveloped protasis. When the conditional idea becomes clearer, it finds expression in a formal protasis, and a conditional sentence is developed.

a. Forsitan, perhaps, regularly takes the Potential Subjunctive except in later Latin and in poetry, where the Indicative is also common:—

forsitan quaerātis quī iste terror sit (Rosc. Am. 5), you may perhaps inquire what this alarm is.

forsitan temerē fēcerim (id. 31), perhaps I have acted rashly.

NOTE.—The subjunctive clause with forsitan (f̄ors sit an) was originally an Indirect Question: it would be a chance whether, etc.

b. Fortasse, perhaps, is regularly followed by the Indicative; sometimes, however, by the Subjunctive, but chiefly in later Latin:—

quaerēs fortasse (Fam. xv. 4. 13), perhaps you will ask.

NOTE.—Other expressions for perhaps are (1) forsan (chiefly poetical; construed with the indicative or the subjunctive, more commonly the indicative), fors (rare and poetical; construed with either the indicative or the subjunctive). Forsit (or fors sit) occurs once (Hor. S. i. 6. 49) and takes the subjunctive. Fortasse is sometimes followed by the infinitive with subject accusative in Plautus and Terence. Fortassis (rare; construed like fortasse) and fortasse an (very rare; construed with the subjunctive) are also found.

IMPERATIVE MOOD

448. The Imperative is used in Commands and Entreaties:—

cōnsulite vōbīs, prōspicite patriae, cōnservāte vōs (Cat. iv. 3), have a care for yourselves, guard the country, preserve yourselves.

dīc, Mārce Tullī, sententiam, Marcus Tullius, state your opinion.

tē ipsum concute (Hor. S. i. 3. 35), examine yourself.

vīve, valēque (id. ii. 5. 110), farewell, bless you (live and be well) !

miserēre animī nōn dīgna ferentis (Aen. ii. 144), pity a soul bearing undeserved misfortune.

a. The third person of the imperative is antiquated or poetic:—

ollīs salūs populī suprēma lēx estō (Legg. iii. 8), the safety of the people shall be their first law.

iūsta imperia suntō, eīsque cīvēs modestē pārentō (id. iii. 6), let there oe lawful authorities, and let the citizens strictly obey them.

NOTE.—In prose the Hortatory Subjunctive is commonly used instead (§ 439).

449. The Future Imperative is used in commands, etc., where there is a distinct reference to future time:—
1. In connection with some adverb or other expression that indicates at what time in the future the action of the imperative shall take place. So especially with a future, a future perfect indicative, or (in poetry and early Latin) with a present imperative:—

crās petitō, dabitur (Pl. Merc. 769), ask to-morrow [and] it shall be given.

cum valētūdinī cōnsulueris, tum cōnsulitō nāvigātiōnī (Fam. xvi. 4. 3), when you have attended to your health, then look to your sailing.

Phyllida mitte mihī, meus est nātālis, Iollā; cum faciam vitulā prō frūgibus, ipse venītō (Ecl. iii. 76), send Phyllis to me, it is my birthday, Iollas; when I [shall] sacrifice a heifer for the harvest, come yourself.

dīc quibus in terrīs, etc., et Phyllida sōlus habētō (id. iii. 107), tell in what lands, etc., and have Phyllis for yourself.

2. In general directions serving for all time, as Precepts, Statutes, and Wills:—

is iūris cīvīlis cūstōs estō (Legg. iii. 8), let him (the prætor) be the guardian of civil right.

Boreā flante, nē arātō, sēmen nē iacitō (Plin. H. N. xviii. 334), when the north wind blows, plough not nor sow your seed.

a. The verbs sciō, meminī, and habeō (in the sense of consider) regularly use the Future Imperative instead of the Present:—

fīliolō mē auctum scītō (Att. i. 2), learn that I am blessed with a little boy.

sīc habētō, mī Tirō (Fam. xvi. 4. 4), so understand it, my good Tiro.

dē pallā mementō, amābō (Pl. Asin. 939), remember, dear, about the gown.

b. The Future Indicative is sometimes used for the imperative; and quīn (why not?) with the Present Indicative may have the force of a command:—

sī quid acciderit novī, faciēs ut sciam (Fam. xiv. 8), you will let me know if anything new happens.

quīn accipis (Ter. Haut. 832), here, take it (why not take it?).

c. Instead of the simple Imperative, cūrā ut, fac (fac ut), or velim, followed by the subjunctive (§ 565), is often used, especially in colloquial language:—

cūrā ut Rōmae sīs (Att. i. 2), take care to be at Rome.

fac ut valētūdinem cūrēs (Fam. xiv. 17), see that you take care of your health

domī adsītis facite (Ter. Eun. 506), be at home, do.

eum mihi velim mittās (Att. viii. 11), I wish you would send it to me.

For commands in Indirect Discourse, see § 588.

For the Imperative with the force of a Conditional Clause, see § 521. b.

Prohibition (Negative Command)

450. Prohibition is regularly expressed in classic prose (1) by nōlī with the Infinitive, (2) by cavē with the Present Subjunctive, or (3) by nē with the Perfect Subjunctive: —²⁰⁶

(1) nōlī putāre (Lig. 33), do not suppose (be unwilling to suppose).

nōlī impudēns esse (Fam. xii. 30. 1), don't be shameless.

nōlīte cōgere sociōs (Verr. ii. 1. 82), do not compel the allies.

(2) cavē putēs (Att. vii. 20), don't suppose (take care lest you suppose).

cavē īgnōscās (Lig. 14), do not pardon.

cavē festīnēs (Fam. xvi. 12. 6), do not be in haste.

(3) nē necesse habueris (Att. xvi. 2. 5), do not regard it as necessary.

nē sīs admīrātus (Fam. vii. 18. 3), do not be surprised.

hōc facitō; hōc nē fēceris (Div. ii. 127), thou shalt do this, thou shalt not do that.

nē Apellae quidem dīxeris (Fam. vii. 25. 2), do not tell Apella even.

nē vōs quidem mortem timueritis (Tusc. i. 98), nor must you fear death.

All three of these constructions are well established in classic prose. The first, which is the most ceremonious, occurs oftenest; the third, though not discourteous, is usually less formal and more peremptory than the others.

NOTE 1.—Instead of nōlī the poets sometimes use other imperatives of similar meaning (cf. § 457. a):—

parce piās scelerāre manūs (Aen. iii. 42), forbear to defile your pious hands.

cētera mitte loquī (Hor. Epod. 13. 7), forbear to say the rest.

fuge quaerere (Hor. Od. i. 9. 13), do not inquire.

NOTE 2.—Cavē nē is sometimes used in prohibitions; also vidē nē and (colloquially) fac nē: as,— fac nē quid aliud cūrēs (Fam. xvi. 11), see that you attend to nothing else.

NOTE 3.—The present subjunctive with nē and the perfect with cavē are found in old writers; nē with the present is common in poetry at all periods:—

nē exspectētis (Pl. Ps. 1234), do not wait.

nē metuās (Mart. Ep. i. 70. 13), do not fear.

cave quicquam responderis (Pl. Am. 608), do not make any reply.

NOTE 4.—Other negatives sometimes take the place of nē:—

nihil īgnōveris (Mur. 65), grant no pardon (pardon nothing).

nec mihi illud dīxeris (Fin. i. 25), and do not say this to me.

NOTE 5.—The regular connective, and do not, is nēve.

a. The Present Imperative with nē is used in prohibitions by early writers and the poets:—

nē timē (Pl. Curc. 520), don't be afraid.

nimium nē crēde colōrī (Ecl. ii. 17), trust not too much to complexion.

equō nē crēdite (Aen. ii. 48), trust not the horse.

b. The Future Imperative with nē is used in prohibitions in laws and formal precepts (see § 449. 2).

INFINITIVE MOOD

451. The Infinitive is properly a noun denoting the action of the verb abstractly. It differs, however, from other abstract nouns in the following points: (1) it often admits the distinction of tense; (2) it is modified by adverbs, not by adjectives; (3) it governs the same case as its verb; (4) it is limited to special constructions. The Latin Infinitive is the dative or locative case of such a noun²⁰⁷ and was originally used to denote Purpose; but it has in many constructions developed into a substitute for a finite verb. Hence the variety of its use. In its use as a verb, the Infinitive may take a Subject Accusative (§ 397. e), originally the object of another verb on which the Infinitive depended. Thus iubeō tē valēre is literally I command you for being well (cf. substantive clauses, § 562. N.).

Infinitive as Noun

452. The Infinitive, with or without a subject accusative, may be used with est and similar verbs (1) as the Subject, (2) in Apposition with the subject, or (3) as a Predicate Nominative.²⁰⁸
1. As Subject:—

dolēre malum est (Fin. v. 84), to suffer pain is an evil.

bellum est sua vitia nōsse (Att. ii. 17), it's a fine thing to know one's own faults.

praestat compōnere fluctūs (Aen. i. 135), it is better to calm the waves.

2. In Apposition with the Subject:—

proinde quasi iniūriam facere id dēmum esset imperiō ūtī (Sall. Cat. 12), just as if this and this alone, to commit injustice, were to use power. [Here facere is in apposition with id.]

3. As Predicate Nominative:—

id est convenienter nātūrae vīvere (Fin. iv. 41), that is to live in conformity with nature. [Cf. ūtī in the last example.]

NOTE 1.—An infinitive may be used as Direct Object in connection with a Predicate Accusative (§ 393), or as Appositive with such Direct Object :—

istuc ipsum nōn esse cum fueris miserrimum putō (Tusc. i. 12), for I think this very thing most wretched, not to be when one has been. [Here istuc ipsum belongs to the noun nōn esse.]

miserārī, invidēre, gestīre, laetārī, haec omnia morbōs Graecī appellant (id. iii. 7), to feel pity, envy, desire, joy,— all these things the Greeks call diseases. [Here the infinitives are in apposition with haec.]

NOTE 2.—An Appositive or Predicate noun or adjective used with an infinitive in any of these constructions is put in the Accusative, whether the infinitive has a subject expressed or not. Thus,— nōn esse cupidum pecūnia est (Par. 51), to be free from desires (not to be desirous) is money in hand. [No Subject Accusative.]

a. The infinitive as subject is not common except with est and similar verbs. But sometimes, especially in poetry, it is used as the subject of verbs which are apparently more active in meaning :—

quōs omnīs eadem cupere, eadem ōdisse, eadem metuere, in ūnum coēgit (Iug. 31), all of whom the fact of desiring, hating, and fearing the same things has united into one.

ingenuās didicisse fidēliter artīs ēmollit mōrēs (Ov. P. ii. 9. 48), faithfully to have learned liberal arts softens the manners.

posse loquī ēripitur (Ov. M. ii. 483), the power of speech is taken away.

453. Rarely the Infinitive is used exactly like the Accusative of a noun:—

beātē vīvere aliī in aliō, vōs in voluptāte pōnitis (Fin. ii. 86), a happy life different [philosophers] base on different things, you on pleasure.

quam multa …facimus causā amīcōrum, precārī ab indīgnō, supplicāre, etc. (Lael. 57), how many things we do for our friends' sake, ask favors from an unworthy person, resort to entreaty, etc.

nihil explōrātum habeās, nē amāre quidem aut amārī (id. 97), you have nothing assured, not even loving and being loved.

NOTE.—Many complementary and other constructions approach a proper accusative use of the infinitive, but their development has been different from that of the examples above. Thus,— avāritia …superbiam, crūdēlitātem, deōs neglegere, omnia vēnālia habēre ēdocuit (Sall. Cat. 10), avarice taught pride, cruelty, to neglect the gods, and to hold everything at a price.

Infinitive as Apparent Subject of Impersonals

454. The Infinitive is used as the apparent Subject with many impersonal verbs and expressions: Such are libet, licet, oportet, decet, placet, vīsum est, pudet, piget, necesse est, opus est, etc.:—

libet mihi cōnsīderāre (Quinct. 48), it suits me to consider.

necesse est morī (Tusc. ii. 2), it is necessary to die.

quid attinet glōriōsē loquī nisi cōnstanter loquāre (Fin. ii. 89), what good does it do to talk boastfully unless you speak consistently?

neque mē vīxisse paenitet (id. 84), I do not feel sorry to have lived.

gubernāre mē taedēbat (Att. ii. 7. 4), I was tired of being pilot.

NOTE.—This use is a development of the Complementary Infinitive (§ 456); but the infinitives approach the subject construction and may be conveniently regarded as the subjects of the impersonals.

455. With impersonal verbs and expressions that take the Infinitive as an apparent subject, the personal subject of the action may be expressed —
1. By a Dative, depending on the verb or verbal phrase:—

rogant ut id sibi facere liceat (B. G. i. 7), they ask that it be allowed them to do this.

nōn lubet enim mihi dēplōrāre vītam (Cat. M. 84), for it does not please me to lament my life.

vīsum est mihi dē senectūte aliquid cōnscrībere (id. 1), it seemed good to me to write something about old age.

quid est tam secundum nātūram quam senibus ēmorī (id. 71), what is so much in accordance with nature as for old men to die?

exstinguī hominī suō tempore optābile est (id. 85), for a man to die at the appointed time is desirable.

2. By an Accusative expressed as the subject of the infinitive or the object of the impersonal:—

sī licet vīvere eum quem Sex. Naevius nōn volt (Quinct. 94), if it is allowed a man to live against the will of Sextus Nœvius.

nōnne oportuit praescīsse mē ante (Ter. And. 239), ought I not to have known beforehand?

ōrātōrem īrāscī minimē decet (Tusc. iv. 54), it is particularly unbecoming for an orator to lose his temper.

pudēret mē dīcere (N. D. i. 109), I should be ashamed to say.

cōnsilia ineunt quōrum eōs in vestīgiō paenitēre necesse est (B. G. iv. 5), they form plans for which they must at once be sorry.

NOTE.—Libet, placet, and vīsum est take the dative only; oportet, pudet, piget, and generally decet, the accusative only; licet and necesse est take either case.

a. A predicate noun or adjective is commonly in the Accusative; but with licet regularly, and with other verbs occasionally, the Dative is used:—

expedit bonās esse vōbīs (Ter. Haut. 388), it is for your advantage to be good.

licuit esse ōtiōsō Themistoclī (Tusc. i. 33), Themistocles might have been inactive (it was allowed to Themistocles to be inactive).

mihi neglegentī esse nōn licet (Att. i. 17. 6), I must not be negligent. [But also neglegentem.]

cūr hīs esse līberōs nōn licet (Flacc. 71), why is it not allowed these men to be free?

nōn est omnibus stantibus necesse dīcere (Marc. 33), it is not necessary for all to speak standing.

NOTE.—When the subject is not expressed, as being indefinite (one, anybody), a predicate noun or adjective is regularly in the accusative (cf. § 452. 3. N. 2): as,— vel pāce vel bellō clārum fierī licet (Sall. Cat. 3), one can become illustrious either in peace or in war.

Complementary Infinitive

456. Verbs which imply another action of the same subject to complete their meaning take the Infinitive without a subject accusative. Such are verbs denoting to be able, dare, undertake, remember, forget, be accustomed, begin, continue, cease, hesitate, learn, know how, fear, and the like:—

hōc queō dīcere (Cat. M. 32), this I can say.

mittō quaerere (Rosc. Am. 53), I omit to ask.

vereor laudāre praesentem (N. D. i. 58), I fear to praise a man to his face.

ōrō ut mātūrēs venīre (Att. iv. 1), I beg you will make haste to come.

oblīvīscī nōn possum quae volō (Fin. ii. 104), I cannot forget that which I wish.

dēsine id mē docēre (Tusc. ii. 29), cease to teach me that.

dīcere solēbat, he used to say.

audeō dīcere, I venture to say.

loquī posse coepī, I began to be able to speak.

NOTE.—The peculiarity of the Complementary Infinitive construction is that no Subject Accusative is in general admissible or conceivable. But some infinitives usually regarded as objects can hardly be distinguished from this construction when they have no subject expressed. Thus volō dīcere and volō mē dīcere mean the same thing, I wish to speak, but the latter is object-infinitive, while the former is not apparently different in origin and construction from queō dīcere (complementary infinitive), and again volō eum dīcere, I wish him to speak, is essentially different from either (cf. § 563. b).

457. Many verbs take either a Subjunctive Clause or a Complementary Infinitive, without difference of meaning. Such are verbs signifying willingness, necessity, propriety, resolve, command, prohibition, effort, and the like (cf. § 563): —

dēcernere optābat (Q. C. iii. 11. 1), he was eager to decide.

optāvit ut tollerētur (Off. iii. 94), he was eager to be taken up.

oppūgnāre contendit (B. G. v. 21), he strove to take by storm.

contendit ut caperet (id. v. 8), he strove to take.

bellum gerere cōnstituit (id. iv. 6), he decided to carry on war.

cōnstitueram ut manērem (Att. xvi. 10. 1), I had decided to remain.

NOTE 1.—For the infinitive with subject accusative used with some of these verbs instead of a complementary infinitive, see § 563.

NOTE 2.—Some verbs of these classes never take the subjunctive, but are identical in meaning with others which do:—

eōs quōs tūtāri dēbent dēserunt (Off. i. 28), they forsake those whom they ought to protect.

aveō pūgnāre (Att. ii. 18. 3), I'm anxious to fight.

a. In poetry and later writers many verbs may have the infinitive, after the analogy of verbs of more literal meaning that take it in prose:—

furit tē reperīre (Hor. Od. i. 15. 27), he rages to find thee. [A forcible way of saying cupit (§§ 457, 563. b).]

saevit exstinguere nōmen (Ov. M. i. 200), he rages to blot out the name.

fuge quaerere (Hor. Od. i. 9. 13), forbear to ask (cf. § 450. N. 1).

parce piās scelerāre manūs (Aen. iii. 42), forbear to defile your pious hands.

458. A Predicate Noun or Adjective after a complementary infinitive takes the case of the subject of the main verb:—

fierīque studēbam êius prūdentiā doctior (Lael. 1), I was eager to become more wise through his wisdom.

sciō quam soleās esse occupātus (Fam. xvi. 21. 7), I know how busy you usually are (are wont to be).

brovis esse labōrō, obscūrus fīō (Hor. A. P. 25), I struggle to be brief, I become obscure.

Infinitive with Subject Accusative

459. The Infinitive with Subject Accusative is used with verbs and other expressions of knowing, thinking, telling, and perceiving (Indirect Discourse, § 579):—

dīcit montem ab hostibus tenērī (B. G. i. 22), he says that the hill is held by the enemy. [Direct: mōns ab hostibus tenētur.]

Infinitive of Purpose

460. In a few cases the Infinitive retains its original meaning of Purpose.
a. The infinitive is used in isolated passages instead of a subjunctive clause after habeō, dō, ministrō:—

tantum habeō pollicērī (Fam. i. 5 A. 3), so much I have to promise. [Here the more formal construction would be quod pollicear.]

ut Iovī bibere ministrāret (Tusc. i. 65), to serve Jove with wine (to drink).

merīdiē bibere datō (Cato R. R. 89), give (to) drink at noonday.

b. Parātus, suētus, and their compounds, and a few other participles (used as adjectives), take the infinitive like the verbs from which they come:—

id quod parātī sunt facere (Quint. 8), that which they are ready to do.

adsuēfactī superārī (B. G. vi. 24), used to being conquered.

currū succēdere suētī (Aen. iii. 541), used to being harnessed to the chariot.

cōpiās bellāre cōnsuētās (B. Afr. 73), forces accustomed to fighting.

NOTE.—In prose these words more commonly take the Gerund or Gerundive construction (§ 503 ff.) either in the genitive, the dative, or the accusative with ad:—

īnsuētus nāvigandī (B. G. v. 6), unused to making voyages.

alendīs līberīs suēti (Tac. Ann. xiv. 27), accustomed to supporting children.

corpora īnsuēta ad onera portanda (B. C. i. 78), bodies unused to carry burdens.

c. The poets and early writers often use the infinitive to express purpose when there is no analogy with any prose construction:—

fīlius intrō iit vidēre quid agat (Ter. Hec. 345), your son has gone in to see what he is doing. [In prose: the supine vīsum.]

nōn ferrō Libycōs populāre Penātīs vēnimus (Aen. i. 527), we have not come to lay waste with the sword the Libyan homes.

lōrīcam dōnat habēre virō (id. v. 262), he gives the hero a breastplate to wear. [In prose: habendam.]

NOTE.—So rarely in prose writers of the classic period.

For the Infinitive used instead of a Substantive Clause of Purpose, see § 457.

For tempus est abīre, see § 504. N. 2.

Peculiar Infinitives

461. Many Adjectives take the Infinitive in poetry, following a Greek idiom:—

dūrus compōnere versūs (Hor. S. i. 4. 8), harsh in composing verse.

cantārī dīgnus (Ecl. v. 54), worthy to be sung. [In prose: quī cantētur.]

fortis trāctāre serpentīs (Hor. Od. i. 37. 26), brave to handle serpents.

cantāre perītī (Ecl. x. 32), skilled in song.

facilēs aurem praebēre (Prop. iii. 14. 15), ready to lend an ear.

nescia vincī pectora (Aen. xii. 527), hearts not knowing how to yield.

tē vidēre aegrōtī (Plaut. Trin. 75), sick of seeing you.

a. Rarely in poetry the infinitive is used to express result:—

fingit equum docilem magister īre viam quā mōnstret eques (Hor. Ep. i. 2. 64), the trainer makes the horse gentle so as to go in the road the rider points out.

hīc levāre …pauperem labōribus vocātus audit (Hor. Od. ii. 18. 38), he, when called, hears, so as to relieve the poor man of his troubles.

NOTE.—These poetic constructions were originally regular and belong to the Infinitive as a noun in the Dative or Locative case (§ 451). They had been supplanted, however, by other more formal constructions, and were afterwards restored in part through Greek influence.

b. The infinitive occasionally occurs as a pure noun limited by a demonstrative, a possessive, or some other adjective:—

hōc nōn dolēre (Fin. ii. 18), this freedom from pain. [Cf. tōtum hōc beātē vīvere (Tusc. v. 33), this whole matter of the happy life.]

nostrum vīvere (Pers. i. 9), our life (to live)

scīre tuum (id. i. 27), your knowledge (to know).

Exclamatory Infinitive

462. The Infinitive, with Subject Accusative,²⁰⁹ may be used in Exclamations (cf. § 397. d):—

tē in tantās aerumnās propter mē incidisse (Fam. xiv. 1), alas, that you should have fallen into such grief for me !

mēne inceptō dēsistere victam (Aen. i. 37), what ! I beaten desist from my purpose?

NOTE 1.—The interrogative particle -ne is often attached to the emphatic word (as in the second example).

NOTE 2.—The Present and the Perfect Infinitive are used in this construction with their ordinary distinction of time (§ 486).

a. A subjunctive clause, with or without ut, is often used elliptically in exclamatory questions. The question may be introduced by the interrogative -ne:—

quamquam quid loquor? tē ut ūlla rēs frangat (Cat. i. 22), yet why do I speak? [the idea] that anything should bend you !

egone ut tē interpellem (Tusc. ii. 42), what, I interrupt you?

ego tibi īrāscerer (Q. Fr. i. 3), I angry with you?

NOTE.—The Infinitive in exclamations usually refers to something actually occurring; the Subjunctive, to something contemplated.

Historical Infinitive

463. The Infinitive is often used for the Imperfect Indicative in narration, and takes a subject in the Nominative:—

tum Catilīna pollicērī novās tabulās (Sall. Cat. 21), then Catiline promised abolition of debts (clean ledgers).

ego īnstāre ut mihi respondēret (Verr. ii. 188), I kept urging him to answer me.

pars cēdere, aliī īnsequī; neque sīgna neque ōrdinēs observāre; ubi quemque perīculum cēperat, ibi resistere ac prōpulsāre; arma, tēla, equī, virī, hostēs atque cīvēs permixtī; nihil cōnsiliō neque imperiō agī; fors omnia regere (Iug. 51), a part give way, others press on; they hold neither to standards nor ranks; where danger overtook them, there each would stand and fight; arms, weapons, horses, men, foe and friend, mingled in confusion; nothing went by counsel or command; chance ruled all.

NOTE.—This construction is not strictly historical, but rather descriptive, and is never used to state a mere historical fact. It is rarely found in subordinate clauses. Though occurring in most of the writers of all periods, it is most frequent in the historians Sallust, Livy, Tacitus. It does not occur in Suetonius.

TENSES

464. The number of possible Tenses is very great. For in each of the three times, Present, Past, and Future, an action may be represented as going on, completed, or beginning; as habitual or isolated; as defined in time or indefinite, (aoristic); as determined with reference to the time of the speaker, or as not itself so determined but as relative to some time which is determined; and the past and future times may be near or remote. Thus a scheme of thirty or more tenses might be devised. But, in the development of forms, which always takes place gradually, no language finds occasion for more than a small part of these. The most obvious distinctions, according to our habits of thought, appear in the following scheme:—

		1. Definite (fixing the time of the action)				2.Indefinite
		INCOMPLETE		COMPLETE		NARRATIVE
Present:	a.	I am writing.	d.	I have written.	g.	I write.
Past:	b.	I was writing.	e.	I had written.	h.	I wrote.
Future:	c.	I shall be writing.	f.	I shall have written.	i.	I shall write.

Most languages disregard some of these distinctions, and some make other distinctions not here given. The Indo-European parent speech had a Present tense to express a and g, a Perfect to express d, an Aorist to express h, a Future to express c and i, and an Imperfect to express b. The Latin, however, confounded the Perfect and Aorist in a single form (the Perfect scrīpsī), thus losing all distinction of form between d and h, and probably in a great degree the distinction of meaning. The nature of this confusion may be seen by comparing dīxī, dicāvī, and didicī (all Perfects derived from the same root, DIC), with έ̓δειξα, Skr. adiksham, δέδειχα, Skr. dideça. Latin also developed two new forms, those for e (scrīpseram) and f (scrīpserō), and thus possessed six tenses, as seen in § 154. c. The lines between these six tenses in Latin are not hard and fast, nor are they precisely the same that we draw in English. Thus in many verbs the form corresponding to I have written (d) is used for those corresponding to I am writing (a) and I write (g) in a slightly different sense, and the form corresponding to I had written (e) is used in like manner for that corresponding to I was writing (b). Again, the Latin often uses the form for I shall have written (f) instead of that for I shall write (i). Thus, nōvī, I have learned, is used for I know; cōnstiterat, he had taken his position, for he stood; cōgnōverō, I shall have learned, for I shall be aware. In general a writer may take his own point of view.

TENSES OF THE INDICATIVE

INCOMPLETE ACTION

PRESENT TENSE

465. The Present Tense denotes an action or state (1) as now taking place or existing, and so (2) as incomplete in present time, or (3) as indefinite, referring to no particular time, but denoting a general truth:—

senātus haec intellegit, cōnsul videt, hīc tamen vīvit (Cat. i. 2), the senate knows this, the consul sees it, yet this man lives.

tibi concēdō meās sēdīs (Div. i. 104), I give you my seat (an offer which may or may not be accepted).

exspectō quid velīs (Ter. And. 34), I await your pleasure (what you wish).

tū āctiōnem īnstituis, ille aciem īnstruit (Mur. 22), you arrange a case, he arrays an army. [The present is here used of regular employment.]

minōra dī neglegunt (N. D. iii. 86), the gods disregard trifles. [General truth.]

obsequium amīcōs, vēritās odium parit (Ter. And. 68), flattery gains friends, truth hatred. [General truth.]

NOTE.—The present of a general truth is sometimes called the Gnomic Present.

a. The present is regularly used in quoting writers whose works are extant:—

Epicūrus vērō ea dīcit (Tusc. ii. 17), but Epicurus says such things.

apud illum Ulixēs lāmentātur in volnere (id. ii. 49), in him (Sophocles) Ulysses laments over his wound.

Polyphēmum Homērus cum ariete colloquentem facit (id. v. 115), Homer brings in (makes) Polyphemus talking with his ram.

Present with iam diū etc.

466. The Present with expressions of duration of time (especially iam diū, iam dūdum) denotes an action continuing in the present, but begun in the past (cf. § 471. b). In this use the present is commonly to be rendered by the perfect in English:—

iam diū īgnōrō quid agās (Fam. vii. 9), for a long time I have not known what you were doing.

tē iam dūdum hortor (Cat. i. 12), I have long been urging you.

patimur multōs iam annōs (Verr. v. 126), we suffer now these many years. [The Latin perfect would imply that we no longer suffer.]

annī sunt octō cum ista causa versātur (cf. Clu. 82), it is now eight years that this case has been in hand.

annum iam audīs Cratippum (Off. i. 1), for a year you have been a hearer of Cratippus.

adhūc Plancius mē retinet (Fam. xiv. 1. 3), so far Plancius has kept me here.

NOTE 1.—The difference in the two idioms is that the English states the beginning and leaves the continuance to be inferred, while the Latin states the continuance and leaves the beginning to be inferred. Compare he has long suffered (and still suffers) with he still suffers (and has suffered long).

NOTE 2.—Similarly the Present Imperative with iam dūdum indicates that the action commanded ought to have been done or was wished for long ago (cf. the Perfect Imperative in Greek): as,— iam dūdum sūmite poenās (Aen. ii. 103), exact the penalty long delayed.

Conative Present

467. The Present sometimes denotes an action attempted or begun in present time, but never completed at all (Conative Present, cf. § 471. c):—

iam iamque manū tenet (Aen. ii. 530), and now, even now, he attempts to grasp him.

dēnsōs fertur in hostīs (id. ii. 511), he starts to rush into the thickest of the foe.

dēcernō quīnquāgintā diērum supplicātiōnēs (Phil. xiv. 29), I move for fifty days' thanksgiving. [Cf. senātus dēcrēvit, the senate ordained.]

Present for Future

468. The Present, especially in colloquial language and poetry, is often used for the Future:—

īmusne sessum (De Or. iii. 17), shall we take a seat? (are we going to sit?)

hodiē uxōrem dūcis (Ter. And. 321), are you to be married to-day?

quod sī fit, pereō funditus (id. 244), if this happens, I am utterly undone.

ecquid mē adiuvās (Clu. 71), won't you give me a little help?

in iūs vocō tē. nōn eō. nōn īs (Pl. Asin. 480), I summon you to the court. I won't go. You won't?

NOTE.—Eō and its compounds are especially frequent in this use (cf. where are you going to-morrow? and the Greek ε~ἰμι in a future sense). Verbs of necessity, possibility, wish, and the like (as possum, volō, etc.) also have reference to the future.

For other uses of the Present in a future sense, see under Conditions (§ 516. a. N.), antequam and priusquam (§ 551. c), dum (§ 553. N. 2), and § 444. a. N.

Historical Present

469. The Present in lively narrative is often used for the Historical Perfect:—

affertur nūntius Syrācūsās; curritur ad praetōrium; Cleomenēs in pūblico esse nōn audet; inclūdit sē domī (Verr. v. 92), the news is brought to Syracuse; they run to headquarters; Cleomenes does not venture to be abroad; he shuts himself up at home.

NOTE.—This usage, common in all languages, comes from imagining past events as going on before our eyes (repraesentātiō, § 585. b. N.).

For the Present Indicative with dum, while, see § 556.

a. The present may be used for the perfect in a summary enumeration of past events (Annalistic Present):—

Rōma interim crēscit Albae ruīnīs: duplicātur cīvium numerus; Caelius additur urbī mōns (Liv. i. 30), Rome meanwhile grows as a result of the fall of Alba : the number of citizens is doubled; the Cœlian hill is added to the town.

IMPERFECT TENSE

470. The Imperfect denotes an action or a state as continued or repeated in past time:—

hunc audiēbant anteā (Manil. 13), they used to hear of him before.

[Sōcratēs] ita cēnsēbat itaque disseruit (Tusc. i. 72), Socrates thought so (habitually), and so he spoke (then).

prūdēns esse putābātur (Lael. 6), he was (generally) thought wise. [The perfect would refer to some particular case, and not to a state of things.]

iamque rubēscēbat Aurōra (Aen. iii. 521), and now the dawn was blushing.

āra vetus stābat (Ov. M. vi. 326), an old altar stood there.

NOTE.—The Imperfect is a descriptive tense and denotes an action conceived as in progress or a state of things as actually observed. Hence in many verbs it does not differ in meaning from the Perfect. Thus rēx erat and rēx fuit may often be used indifferently; but the former describes the condition while the latter only states it. The English is less exact in distinguishing these two modes of statement. Hence the Latin Imperfect is often translated by the English Preterite:—

Haeduī graviter ferēbant, neque lēgātōs ad Caesarem mittere audēbant (B. G. v. 6), the Hædui were displeased, and did not dare to send envoys to Cæsar. [Here the Imperfects describe the state of things.] But, —

id tulit factum graviter Indūtiomārus (id. v. 4), Indutiomarus was displeased at this action. [Here the Perfect merely states the fact.]

aedificia vīcōsque habēbant (id. iv. 4), they had buildings and villages.

471. The Imperfect represents a present tense transferred to past time. Hence all the meanings which the Present has derived from the continuance of the action belong also to the Imperfect in reference to past time.
a. The Imperfect is used in descriptions:—

erant omnīnō itinera duo …mōns altissimus impendēbat (B. G. i. 6), there were in all two ways …a very high mountain overhung.

b. With iam diū, iam dūdum, and other expressions of duration of time, the Imperfect denotes an action continuing in the past but begun at some previous time (cf. § 466). In this construction the Imperfect is rendered by the English Pluperfect:—

iam dūdum flēbam (Ov. M. iii. 656), I had been weeping for a long time.

cōpiās quās diū comparābant (Fam. xi. 13. 5), the forces which they had long been getting ready.

c. The Imperfect sometimes denotes an action as begun (Inceptive Imperfect), or as attempted or only intended (Conative Imperfect; cf § 467):—

in exsilium ēiciēbam quem iam ingressum esse in bellum vidēbam (Cat. ii. 14), was I trying to send into exile one who I saw had already gone into war?

hunc igitur diem sibi prōpōnēns Milō, cruentīs manibus ad illa augusta centuriārum auspicia veniēbat (Mil. 43), was Milo coming (i.e. was it likely that he would come), etc.?

sī licitum esset veniēbant (Verr. v. 129), they were coming if it had been allowed (they were on the point of coming, and would have done so if, etc.).

NOTE.—To this head may be referred the imperfect with iam, denoting the beginning of an action or state: as, — iamque arva tenēbant ultima (Aen. vi. 477), and now they were just getting to the farthest fields.

d. The Imperfect is sometimes used to express a surprise at the present discovery of a fact already existing:—

ō tū quoque aderās (Ter. Ph. 858), oh, you are here too !

ehem, tūn hīc erās, mī Phaedria (Ter. Eun. 86), what ! you here, Phœdria?

ā miser ! quantā labōrābās Charybdī (Hor. Od. i. 27. 19), unhappy boy, what a whirlpool you are struggling in [and I never knew it]!

e. The Imperfect is often used in dialogue by the comic poets where later writers would employ the Perfect:—

ad amīcum Calliclem quoi rem aībat mandāsse hīc suam (Pl. Trin. 956), to his friend Callicles, to whom, he said, he had intrusted his property.

praesāgībat mī animus frūstrā mē īre quom exībam domō (Pl. Aul. 178), my mind mistrusted when I went from home that I went in vain.

NOTE.—So, in conversation the imperfect of verbs of saying (cf. as I was a-saying) is common in classic prose:—

at medicī quoque, ita enim dīcēbās, saepe falluntur (N. D. iii. 15), but physicians also,— for that is what you were saying just now,— are often mistaken.

haec mihi ferē in mentem veniēbant (id. ii. 67, 168), this is about what occurred to me, etc. [In a straightforward narration this would be vēnērunt.]

f. The Imperfect with negative words often has the force of the English auxiliary could or would:—

itaque (Dāmoclēs) nec pulchrōs illōs ministrātōrēs aspiciēbat (Tusc. v. 62), therefore he could not look upon those beautiful slaves. [In this case did not would not express the idea of continued prevention of enjoyment by the overhanging sword.]

nec enim dum eram vōbīscum animum meum vidēbātis (Cat. M. 79), for, you know, while I was with you, you could not see my soul. [Here the Perfect would refer only to one moment.]

Lentulus satis erat fortis ōrātōr, sed cōgitandī nōn ferēbat labōrem (Brut 268), Lentulus was bold enough as an orator, but could not endure the exertion of thinking hard.

For the Epistolary Imperfect, see § 479; for the Imperfect Indicative in apodosis contrary to fact, see § 517. b. c.

FUTURE TENSE

472. The Future denotes an action or state that will occur hereafter.
a. The Future may have the force of an Imperative (§ 449. b).
b. The Future is often required in a subordinate clause in Latin where in English futurity is sufficiently expressed by the main clause:

cum aderit vidēbit, when he is there he will see (cf. § 547).

sānābimur sī volēmus (Tusc. iii. 13), we shall be healed if we wish (cf. § 516. a).

NOTE.—But the Present is common in future protases (§ 516. a. N.).

COMPLETED ACTION

PERFECT TENSE

Perfect Definite and Historical Perfect

473. The Perfect denotes an action either as now completed (Perfect Definite), or as having taken place at some undefined point of past time (Historical or Aoristic Perfect). The Perfect Definite corresponds in general to the English Perfect with have; the Historical Perfect to the English Preterite (or Past):

(1) ut ego fēcī, quī Graecās litterās senex didicī (Cat. M. 26), as I have done, who have learned Greek in my old age.

diūturnī silentī fīnem hodiernus diēs attulit (Marc. 1), this day has put an end to my long-continued silence.

(2) tantum bellum extrēmā hieme apparāvit, ineunte vēre suscēpit, mediā aestāte cōnfēcit (Manil. 35), so great a war he made ready for at the end of winter, undertook in early spring, and finished by midsummer.

NOTE.—The distinction between these two uses is represented by two forms in most other Indo-European languages, but was almost if not wholly lost to the minds of the Romans. It must be noticed, however, on account of the marked distinction in English and also because of certain differences in the sequence of tenses.

a. The Indefinite Present, denoting a customary action or a general truth (§ 465), often has the Perfect in a subordinate clause referring to time antecedent to that of the main clause:—

quī in compedibus corporis semper fuērunt, etiam cum solūtī sunt tardius ingrediuntur (Tusc. i. 75), they who have always been in the fetters of the body, even when released move more slowly.

simul ac mihi collibitum est, praestō est imāgō (N. D. i. 108), as soon as I have taken a fancy, the image is before my eyes.

haec morte effugiuntur, etiam sī nōn ēvēnērunt, tamen quia possunt ēvenīre (Tusc. i. 86), these things are escaped by death even if they have not [yet] happened, because they still may happen.

NOTE.—This use of the perfect is especially common in the protasis of General Conditions in present time (§ 518. b).

474. The Perfect is sometimes used emphatically to denote that a thing or condition of things that once existed no longer exists:

fuit ista quondam in hāc rē pūblicā virtūs (Cat. i. 3), there was once such virtue in this commonwealth.

habuit, nōn habet (Tusc. i. 87), he had, he has no longer.

fīlium habeō …immo habuī; nunc habeam necne incertumst (Ter. Haut. 93), I have a son, no, I had one; whether I have now or not is uncertain.

fuimus Trōes, fuit Īlium (Aen. ii. 325), we have ceased to be Trojans, Troy is no more.

Special Uses of the Perfect

475. The Perfect is sometimes used of a general truth, especially with negatives (Gnomic Perfect):—

quī studet contingere mētam multa tulit fēcitque (Hor. A. P. 412), he who aims to reach the goal, first bears and does many things.

nōn aeris acervus et aurī dēdūxit corpore febrīs (id. Ep. i. 2. 47), the pile of brass and gold removes not fever from the frame.

NOTE.—The gnomic perfect strictly refers to past time; but its use implies that something which never did happen in any known case never does happen, and never will (cf. the English ``Faint heart never won fair lady''); or, without a negative that what has once happened will always happen under similar circumstances.

a. The Perfect is often used in expressions containing or implying a negation, where in affirmation the Imperfect would be preferred:—

dīcēbat melius quam scrīpsit Hortēnsius (Or. 132), Hortensius spoke better than he wrote. [Here the negative is implied in the comparison: compare the use of quisquam, ūllus, etc. (§§ 311, 312), and the French ne after comparatives and superlatives.]

476. The completed tenses of some verbs are equivalent to the incomplete tenses of verbs of kindred meaning. Such are the preteritive verbs ōdī, I hate; meminī, I remember; nōvī, I know; cōnsuēvī, I am accustomed,²¹⁰ with others used preteritively, as vēnerat (= aderat, he was at hand, etc.), cōnstitērunt, they stand firm (have taken their stand), and many inceptives (see § 263. 1):—

quī diēs aestūs maximōs efficere cōnsuēvit (B. G. iv. 29), which day generally makes the highest tides (is accustomed to make).

cûius splendor obsolēvit (Quinct. 59), whose splendor is now all faded.

NOTE.—Many other verbs are occasionally so used: as,— dum oculōs certāmen āverterat (Liv. xxxii. 24), while the contest had turned their eyes (kept them turned). [Here āverterat t̄enēbat.]

PLUPERFECT TENSE

477. The Pluperfect is used (1) to denote an action or state completed in past time; or (2) sometimes to denote an action in indefinite time, but prior to some past time referred to:—

(1) locī nātūra erat haec, quem locum nostrī castrīs dēlēgerant (B. G. ii 18), this was the nature of the ground which our men had chosen for a camp.

Viridovīx summam imperī tenēbat eārum omnium cīvitātum quae dēfēcerant (id. iii. 17), Viridovix held the chief command of all those tribes which had revolted.

(2) neque vērō cum aliquid mandāverat cōnfectum putābat (Cat. iii. 16), but when he had given a thing in charge he did not look on it as done.

quae sī quandō adepta est id quod eī fuerat concupītum, tum fert alacritātem (Tusc. iv. 15), if it (desire) ever has gained what it had [previously] desired, then it produces joy.

For the Epistolary Pluperfect, see § 479.

FUTURE PERFECT TENSE

478. The Future Perfect denotes an action as completed in the future:—

ut sēmentem fēceris, ita metēs (De Or. ii. 261), as you sow (shall have sown), so shall you reap.

carmina tum melius, cum vēnerit ipse, canēmus (Ecl. ix. 67), then shall we sing our songs better, when he himself has come (shall have come).

sī illīus īnsidiae clāriōrēs hāc lūce fuerint, tum dēnique obsecrābō (Mil. 6), when the plots of that man have been shown to be as clear as daylight, then, and not till then, shall I conjure you.

ego certē meum officium praestiterō (B. G. iv. 25), I at least shall have done my duty (i.e. when the time comes to reckon up the matter, I shall be found to have done it, whatever the event).

NOTE.—Latin is far more exact than English in distinguishing between mere future action and action completed in the future. Hence the Future Perfect is much commoner in Latin than in English. It may even be used instead of the Future, from the fondness of the Romans for representing an action as completed:—

quid inventum sit paulō post vīderō (Acad. ii. 76), what has been found out I shall see presently.

quī Antōnium oppresserit bellum taeterrimum cōnfēcerit (Fam. x. 19), whoever crushes (shall have crushed) Antony will finish (will have finished) a most loathsome war.

EPISTOLARY TENSES

479. In Letters, the Perfect Historical or the Imperfect may be used for the present, and the Pluperfect for any past tense, as if the letter were dated at the time it is supposed to be received: —

neque tamen, haec cum scrībēbam, eram nescius quantīs oneribus premerēre (Fam. v. 12. 2), nor while I write this am I ignorant under what burdens you are weighed down.

ad tuās omnīs [epistulās] rescrīpseram prīdiē (Att. ix. 10. 1), I answered all your letters yesterday.

cum quod scrīberem ad tē nihil habērem, tamen hās dedī litterās (Att. ix. 16), though I have nothing to write to you, still I write this letter.

NOTE.—In this use these tenses are called the Epistolary Perfect, Imperfect, and Pluperfect. The epistolary tenses are not employed with any uniformity, but only when attention is particularly directed to the time of writing (so especially scrībēbam, dabam, etc.).

TENSES OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE

480. The tenses of the Subjunctive in Independent Clauses denote time in relation to the time of the speaker. The Present always refers to future (or indefinite) time, the Imperfect to either past or present, the Perfect to either future or past, the Pluperfect always to past.

481. The tenses of the Subjunctive in Dependent Clauses were habitually used in certain fixed connections with the tenses of the main verb. These connections were determined by the time of the main verb and the time of the dependent verb together. They are known, collectively, as the Sequence of Tenses.
NOTE.—The so-called Sequence of Tenses is not a mechanical law. Each tense of the subjunctive in dependent clauses (as in independent) originally denoted its own time in relation to the time of the speaker, though less definitely than the corresponding tenses of the indicative. Gradually, however, as the complex sentence was more strongly felt as a unit, certain types in which the tenses of the dependent clause seemed to accord with those of the main clause were almost unconsciously regarded as regular, and others, in which there was no such agreement, as exceptional. Thus a pretty definite system of correspondences grew up, which is codified in the rules for the Sequence of Tenses. These, however, are by no means rigid. They do not apply with equal stringency to all dependent constructions, and they were frequently disregarded, not only when their strict observance would have obscured the sense, but for the sake of emphasis and variety, or merely from carelessness.

Sequence of Tenses

482. The tenses of the Subjunctive in Dependent Clauses follow special rules for the Sequence of Tenses. With reference to these rules all tenses when used in independent clauses are divided into two classes,— Primary and Secondary.
1. PRIMARY. — The Primary Tenses include all forms that express present or future time. These are the Present, Future, and Future Perfect Indicative, the Present and Perfect Subjunctive, and the Present and Future Imperative.
2. SECONDARY. — The Secondary Tenses include all forms that refer to past time. These are the Imperfect, Perfect, and Pluperfect Indicative, the Imperfect and Pluperfect Subjunctive, and the Historical Infinitive.
NOTE.—To these may be added certain forms less commonly used in independent clauses:— (1) Primary: Present Infinitive in Exclamations; (2) Secondary: Perfect Infinitive in Exclamations (see §§ 462, 485. a. N.).

The Perfect Definite is sometimes treated as primary (see § 485. a).

For the Historical Present, see § 485. e; for the Imperfect Subjunctive in Apodosis see § 485. h.

483. The following is the general rule for the Sequence of Tenses:—²¹¹ In complex sentences a Primary tense in the main clause is followed by the Present or Perfect in the dependent clause, and a Secondary tense by the Imperfect or Pluperfect:—

PRIMARY TENSES

rogō,	I ask, am asking	quid faciās, what you are doing.
rogābō,	I shall ask	quid fēceris, what you did, were doing,
rogāvī (sometimes),	I have asked	have done, have been doing.
rogāverō,	I shall have asked	quid factūrus sīs, what you will do.
scrībit,	he writes	ut nōs moneat, to warn us.
scrībet,	he will write
scrībe (scrībitō),	write	utnōs moneās, to warn us.
scrībit,	he writes	quasi oblītus sit, as if he had forgotten.
SECONDARY TENSES rogābam,	I asked, was asking	quid facerēs, what you were doing.
rogāvī,	I asked, have asked	quid fēcissēs, what you had done, had been doing.
rogāveram,	I had asked	quid factūrus essēs, what you would do.
scrīpsit,	he wrote	ut nōs monēret, to warn us.
scrīpsit,	he wrote	quasi oblītus esset, as if he had forgotten.

484. In applying the rule for the Sequence of Tenses, observe — (1) Whether the main verb is (a) primary or (b) secondary. (2) Whether the dependent verb is to denote completed action (i.e. past with reference to the main verb) or incomplete action (i.e. present or future with reference to the main verb). Then —
a. If the leading verb is primary, the dependent verb must be in the Present if it denotes incomplete action, in the Perfect if it denotes completed action.
b. If the leading verb is secondary, the dependent verb must be in the Imperfect if it denotes incomplete action, in the Pluperfect if it denotes completed action: —

(1) He writes [primary] to warn [incomplete action] us, scrībit ut nōs moneat. I ask [primary] what you were doing [now past], rogō quid fēceris.

(2) He wrote [secondary] to warn [incomplete] us, scrīpsit ut nōs monēret. I asked [secondary] what you were doing [incomplete], rogāvī quid facerēs.

c. Notice that the Future Perfect denotes action completed (at the time referred to), and hence is represented in the Subjunctive by the Perfect or Pluperfect:—

He shows that if they come (shall have come), many will perish, dēmōnstrat, sī vēnerint, multōs interitūrōs.

He showed that if they should come (should have come), many would perish, dēmōnstrāvit, sī vēnissent, multōs interitūrōs.

485. In the Sequence of Tenses the following special points are to be noted:—
a. The Perfect Indicative is ordinarily a secondary tense, but allows the primary sequence when the present time is clearly in the writer's mind:—

ut satis esset praesidī prōvīsum est (Cat. ii. 26), provision has been made that there should be ample guard. [Secondary sequence.]

addūxī hominem in quō satisfacere exterīs nātiōnibus possētis (Verr. i. 2), I have brought a man in whose person you can make satisfaction to foreign nations. [Secondary sequence]

est enim rēs iam in eum locum adducta, ut quamquam multum intersit inter eōrum causās quī dīmicant, tamen inter victōriās nōn multum interfutūrum putem (Fam. v. 21. 3), for affairs have been brought to such a pass that, though there is a great difference between the causes of those who are fighting, still I do not think there will be much difference between their victories. [Primary sequence.]

ea adhibita doctrīna est quae vel vitiōsissimam nātūram excolere possit (Q. Fr. i. 1. 7), such instruction has been given as can train even the faultiest nature. [Primary sequence.]

NOTE.—The Perfect Infinitive in exclamations follows the same rule:—

quemquamne fuisse tam scelerātum quī hōc fingeret (Phil. xiv. 14), was any one so abandoned as to imagine this? [Secondary.]

adeōn rem redīsse patrem ut extimēscam (Ter. Ph. 153), to think that things have come to such a pass that I should dread my father! [Primary.]

b. After a primary tense the Perfect Subjunctive is regularly used to denote any past action. Thus the Perfect Subjunctive may represent —
1. A Perfect Definite:—

nōn dubitō quin omnēs tuī scrīpserint (Fam. v. 8), I do not doubt that all your friends have written. [Direct statement: scrīpsērunt.]

quā rē nōn īgnōrō quid accidat in ultimīs terrīs, cum audierim in Ītaliā querellās cīvium (Q. Fr. i. 1. 33), therefore I know well what happens at the ends of the earth, when I have heard in Italy the complaints of citizens. [Direct statement: audīvī.]

2. A Perfect Historical:—

mē autem hīc laudat quod rettulerim, nōn quod patefēcerim (Att. xii. 21), me he praises because I brought the matter [before the senate], not because 1 brought it to light. [Direct statement: rettulit.]

3. An Imperfect:—

sī forte cecidērunt, tum intellegitur quam fuerint inopēs amīcōrum (Lael. 53), if perchance they fall (have fallen), then one can see how poor they were in friends. [Direct question: quam inopēs erant?]

quī status rērum fuerit cum hās litterās dedī, scīre poteris ex C. Titiō Strabōne (Fam. xii. 6), what the condition of affairs was when I wrote this letter, you can learn from Strabo. [Direct question: quī status erat?]

quam cīvitātī cārus fuerit maerōre fūneris indicātum est (Lael. 11), how dear he was to the state has been shown by the grief at his funeral. [Direct question: quam c=arus erat?]

ex epistulīs intellegī licet quam frequēns fuerit Platōnis audītor (Or. 15), it may be understood from his letters how constant a hearer he was of Plato. [Direct question: quam frequ=ens erat?]

NOTE.—Thus the Perfect Subjunctive may represent, not only a Perfect Definite or a Perfect Historical of a direct statement or question, but an Imperfect as well. This comes from the want of any special tense of the subjunctive for continued past action after a primary tense. Thus, mīror quid fēcerit may mean (1) I wonder what he has done, (2) I wonder what he did (hist. perf.), or (3) I wonder what he was doing.

c. In clauses of Result, the Perfect Subjunctive is regularly (the Present rarely) used after secondary tenses:—

Hortēnsius ārdēbat dīcendī cupiditāte sīc ut in nūllō umquam flagrantius studium vīderim (Brut. 302), Hortensius was so hot with desire of speaking that I have never seen a more burning ardor in any man.

[Siciliam Verrēs] per triennium ita vexāvit ac perdidit ut ea restituī in antīquum statum nūllō modō possit (Verr. i. 12), for three years Verres so racked and ruined Sicily that she can in no way be restored to her former state. [Here the Present describes a state of things actually existing.]

videor esse cōnsecūtus ut nōn possit Dolābella in Ītaliam pervenīre (Fam. xii. 14. 2), I seem to have brought it about that Dolabella cannot come into Italy.

NOTE 1.—This construction emphasizes the result; the regular sequence of tenses would subordinate it.

NOTE 2.—There is a special fondness for the Perfect Subjunctive to represent a Perfect Indicative:—

Thorius erat ita nōn superstitiōsus ut illa plūrima in suā patriā et sacrificia et fāna contemneret; ita nōn timidus ad mortem ut in aciē sit ob rem pūblicam interfectus (Fin. ii. 63), Thorius was so little superstitious that he despised [contemn=ebat] the many sacrifices and shrines in his country; so little timorous about death that he was killed [interfectus est] in battle, in defence of the state.

d. A general truth after a past tense follows the sequence of tenses:

ex hīs quae tribuisset, sibi quam mūtābilis esset reputābat (Q. C. iii. 8. 20), from what she (Fortune) had bestowed on him, he reflected how inconstant she is. [Direct: mūtābilis est.]

ibi quantam vim ad stimulandōs animōs īra habēret appāruit (Liv. xxxiii. 37), here it appeared what power anger has to goad the mind. [Direct: habet.]

NOTE.—In English the original tense is more commonly kept.

e. The Historical Present (§ 469) is sometimes felt as a primary, sometimes as a secondary tense, and accordingly it takes either the primary or the secondary sequence:—

rogat ut cūret quod dīxisset (Quinct. 18), he asks him to attend to the thing he had spoken of. [Both primary and secondary sequence.]

NOTE.—After the historical present, the subjunctive with cum temporal must follow the secondary sequence:—

quō cum vēnisset cōgnōscit (B. C. i. 34), when he had come there he learns.

cum esset pūgnātum hōrīs quīnque, nostrīque gravius premerentur, impetum in cohortīs faciunt (id. i. 46), when they had fought for five hours, and our men were pretty hard pressed, they make an attack on the cohorts.

f. The Historical Infinitive regularly takes the secondary sequence:—

interim cotīdiē Caesar Haeduōs frūmentum, quod essent pollicitī, flāgitāre (B. G. i. 16), meanwhile Cæsar demanded of the Hædui every day the grain which they had promised.

g. The Imperfect and Pluperfect in conditions contrary to fact (§ 517) and in the Deliberative Subjunctive (§ 444) are not affected by the sequence of tenses:—

quia tāle sit, ut vel sī īgnōrārent id hominēs vel sī obmutuissent (Fin. ii. 49), because it is such that even if men WERE ignorant of it, or HAD BEEN silent about it.

quaerō ā tē cūr C. Cornēlium nōn dēfenderem (Vat. 5), I ask you why I was not to defend Caius Cornelius? [Direct: cūr nōn dēfenderem?]

h. The Imperfect Subjunctive in present conditions contrary to fact (§ 517) is regularly followed by the secondary sequence:—

sī aliī cōnsulēs essent, ad tē potissimum, Paule, mitterem, ut eōs mihi quam amīcissimōs redderēs (Fam. xv. 13. 3), if there were other consuls, I should send to you, Paulus, in preference to all, that you might make them as friendly to me as possible.

sī sōlōs eōs dīcerēs miserōs quibus moriendum esset, nēminem exciperēs (Tusc. i. 9), if you were to call only those wretched who must die, you would except no one.

i. The Present is sometimes followed by a secondary sequence, seemingly because the writer is thinking of past time:—

sed sī rēs cōget, est quiddam tertium, quod neque Seliciō nec mihi displicē bat: ut neque iacēre rem paterēmur, etc. (Fam. i. 5 A. 3), but if the case shall demand, there is a third [course] which neither Selicius nor myself disapproved, that we should not allow, etc. [Here Cicero is led by the time of displicēbat.]

sed tamen ut scīrēs, haec tibi scrībō (Fam. xiii. 47), but yet that you may know, I write thus. [As if he had used the epistolary imperfect scrībēbam (§ 479).]

cûius praeceptī tanta vīs est ut ea nōn hominī cuipiam sed Delphicō deō tribuerētur (Legg. i. 58), such is the force of this precept, that it was ascribed not to any man, but to the Delphic god. [The precept was an old one.]

j. When a clause depends upon one already dependent, its sequence may be secondary if the verb of that clause expresses past time, even if the main verb is in a primary tense:—

sed tamen quā rē acciderit ut ex meīs superiōribus litterīs id suspicārēre nesciō (Fam. ii. 16), but yet how it happened that you suspected this from my previous letter, I don't know.

tantum prōfēcisse vidēmur ut ā Graecīs nē verbōrum quidem cōpiā vincerēmur (N. D. i. 8), we seem to have advanced so far that even in abundance of words we ARE not surpassed by the Greeks.

NOTE.—So regularly after a Perfect Infinitive which depends on a primary tense (§ 585. a).

TENSES OF THE INFINITIVE

486. Except in Indirect Discourse, only the Present and Perfect Infinitives are used. The Present represents the action of the verb as in progress without distinct reference to time, the Perfect as completed.

For the Tenses of the Infinitive in Indirect Discourse see § 584.

a. With past tenses of verbs of necessity, propriety, and possibility (as dēbuī, oportuit, potuī), the Present Infinitive is often used in Latin where the English idiom prefers the Perfect Infinitive:—

numne, sī Coriolānus habuit amīcōs, ferre contrā patriam arma illī cum Coriolānō dēbuērunt (Lael. 36), if Coriolanus had friends, ought they to have borne arms with him against their fatherland?

pecūnia, quam hīs oportuit cīvitātibus prō frūmentō darī (Verr. iii. 174), money which ought to have been paid to these states for grain.

cōnsul esse quī potuī, nisi eum vītae cursum tenuissem ā pueritiā (Rep. i. 10), how could I have become consul had I not from boyhood followed that course of life?

b. With verbs of necessity, propriety, and possibility, the Perfect Infinitive may be used to emphasize the idea of completed action:—

tametsī statim vīcisse dēbeō (Rosc. Am. 73), although I ought to win my case at once (to be regarded as having won it).

bellum quod possumus ante hiemem perfēcisse (Liv. xxxvii. 19. 5), a war which we can have completed before winter.

nīl ego, sī peccem, possum nescīsse (Ov. H. xvi. 47), if I should go wrong, I cannot have done it in ignorance (am not able not to have known).

NOTE.—With the past tenses of these verbs the perfect infinitive is apparently due to attraction:—

quod iam prīdem factum esse oportuit (Cat. i. 5), (a thing) which ought to have been done long ago.

haec facta ab illō oportēbat (Ter. Haut. 536), this ought to have been done by him.

tum decuit metuisse (Aen. x. 94), then was the time to fear (then you should have feared).

c. In archaic Latin and in legal formulas the Perfect Active Infinitive is often used with nōlō or volō in prohibitions:—

Chaldaeum nēquem cōnsuluisse velit (Cato R. R. v. 4), let him not venture to have consulted a soothsayer.

nōlītō dēvellisse (Pl. Poen. 872), do not have them plucked.

nēquis humāsse velit Âiācem (Hor. S. ii. 3. 187), let no one venture to have buried Ajax.

NEIQVIS EORVM BACANAL HABVISE VELET (S. C. de Bac. 1), let no one of them venture to have had a place for Bacchanalian worship.

d. With verbs of wishing²¹² the Perfect Passive Infinitive (commonly without esse) is often used emphatically instead of the Present:

domesticā cūrā tē levātum volō (Q. Fr. iii. 9. 3), I wish you relieved of private care.

illōs monitōs volō (Cat. ii. 27), I wish them thoroughly warned.

quī illam [patriam] exstīnctam cupit (Fin. iv. 66), who is eager for her utter destruction.

illud tē esse admonitum volō (Cael. 8), I wish you to be well advised of this.

quī sē ab omnibus dēsertōs potius quam abs tē dēfēnsōs esse mālunt (Caecil. 21), who prefer to be deserted by all rather than to be defended by you.

NOTE.—The participle in this case is rather in predicate agreement (with or without esse) than used to form a strict perfect infinitive, though the full form can hardly be distinguished from that construction.

e. In late Latin, and in poetry (often for metrical convenience), rarely in good prose, the Perfect Active Infinitive is used emphatically instead of the Present, and even after other verbs than those of wishing:—

nēmō eōrum est quī nōn perīsse tē cupiat (Verr. ii. 149), there is no one of them who is not eager for your death.

haud equidem premendō alium mē extulisse velim (Liv. xxii. 59. 10), I would not by crushing another exalt myself.

sunt quī nōlint tetigisse (Hor. S. i. 2. 28), there are those who would not touch.

commīsisse cavet (Hor. A. P. 168), he is cautious of doing.

nunc quem tetigisse timērent, anguis erās (Ov. M. viii. 733), again you became a serpent which they dreaded to touch.

frātrēsque tendentēs opācō Pēlion imposuisse Olympō (Hor. Od. iii. 4. 51), and the brothers striving to set Pelion on dark Olympus.

f. After verbs of feeling the Perfect Infinitive is used, especially by the poets, to denote a completed action. So also with satis est, satis habeō, melius est, contentus sum, and in a few other cases where the distinction of time is important:—

nōn paenitēbat intercapēdinem scrībendī fēcisse (Fam. xvi. 21), I was not sorry to have made a respite of writing.

pudet mē nōn praestitisse (id. xiv. 3), I am ashamed not to have shown.

sunt quōs pulverem Olympicum collēgisse iuvat (Hor. Od. i. 1. 3), some delight to have stirred up the dust at Olympia.

quiēsse erit melius (Liv. iii. 48), it will be better to have kept quiet.

ac sī quis amet scrīpsisse (Hor. S. i. 10. 60), than if one should choose to have written.

id sōlum dīxisse satis habeō (Vell. ii. 124), I am content to have said only this.

NOUN AND ADJECTIVE FORMS OF THE VERB

487. The several Noun and Adjective forms associated with the verb are employed as follows:—²¹³ I. Participles a. Present and Perfect: 1. Attributive (§ 494). 2. Simple Predicate (§ 495). 3. Periphrastic Perfect (passive) (§ 495. N.). 4. Predicate of Circumstance (§ 496). 5. Descriptive (Indirect Discourse) (§ 497 d). b. Future 1. Periphrastic with esse (§ 498. a). 2. Periphrastic with fuī (= Pluperfect Subjunctive) (§ 498. b). c. Gerundive 1. As Descriptive Adjective (§ 500. 1). 2. Periphrastic with esse (§ 500. 2). 3. Of Purpose with certain verbs (§ 500. 4). II. Gerund or Gerundive: 1. Genitive as Subjective or Objective Genitive (§ 504). 2. Dative, with Adjectives (of Fitness), Nouns, Verbs (§ 505). 3. Accusative, with certain Prepositions (§ 506). 4. Ablative, of Means, Comparison, or with Prepositions (§ 507). III. Supine: 1. Accusative Supine (in -um),with Verbs of Motion (§ 509). 2. Ablative Supine (in -=u), chiefly with Adjectives (§ 510).

PARTICIPLES

488. The Participle expresses the action of the verb in the form of an Adjective, but has a partial distinction of tense and may govern a case.
NOTE.—Thus the participle combines all the functions of an adjective with some of the functions of a verb. As an Adjective, it limits substantives and agrees with them in gender, number, and case (§ 286). As a Verb, it has distinctions of time (§ 489) and often takes an object.

Distinctions of Tense in Participles

489. Participles denote time as present, past, or future with respect to the time of the verb in their clause. Thus the Present Participle represents the action as in progress at the time indicated by the tense of the verb, the Perfect as completed, and the Future as still to take place.

490. The Present Participle has several of the special uses of the Present Indicative. Thus it may denote —
1. An action continued in the present but begun in the past (§ 466): quaerentī mihi iam diū certa rēs nūlla veniēbat in mentem (Fam. iv. 13), though I had long sought, no certain thing came to my mind.
2. Attempted action (§ 467):—

C. Flāminiō restitit agrum Pīcentem dīvidentī (Cat. M. 11), he resisted Flaminius when attempting to divide the Picene territory.

3. Rarely (in poetry and later Latin) futurity or purpose, with a verb of motion:—

Eurypylum scītantem ōrācula mittimus (Aen. ii. 114), we send Eurypylus to consult the oracle. [Cf. § 468.]

491. The Perfect Participle of a few deponent verbs is used nearly in the sense of a Present. Such are, regularly, ratus, solitus, veritus; commonly, arbitrātus, fīsus, ausus, secūtus, and occasionally others, especially in later writers:—

rem incrēdibilem ratī (Sall. Cat. 48), thinking the thing incredible.

īnsidiās veritus (B. G. ii. 11), fearing an ambuscade.

cohortātus mīlitēs docuit (B. C. iii. 80), encouraging the men, he showed.

īrātus dīxistī (Mur. 62), you spoke in a passion.

ad pūgnam congressī (Liv. iv. 10), meeting in fight.

492. The Latin has no Present Participle in the passive. The place of such a form is supplied usually by a clause with dum or cum:—

obiēre dum calciantur mātūtīnō duo Caesarēs (Plin. N. H. vii. 181), two Cæsars died while having their shoes put on in the morning.

mēque ista dēlectant cum Latīnē dīcuntur (Acad. i. 18), those things please me when they are spoken in Latin.

NOTE.—These constructions are often used when a participle might be employed:—

dīc, hospes, Spartae nōs tē hīc vīdisse iacentīs, dum sānctīs patriae lēgibus obsequimur (Tusc. i. 101), tell it, stranger, at Sparta, that you saw us lying here obedient to our country's sacred laws. [Here dum obsequimur is a translation of the Greek present participle πειθόμενοι.]

dum [Ulixēs] sibi, dum sociīs reditum parat (Hor. Ep. i. 2. 21), Ulysses, while securing the return of himself and his companions. [In Greek: ἀρνύμενοσ.]

493. The Latin has no Perfect Participle in the active voice. The deficiency is supplied —
1. In deponents by the perfect passive form with its regular active meaning:—

nam singulās [nāvīs] nostrī cōnsectātī expūgnāvērunt (B. G. iii. 15), for our men, having overtaken them one by one, captured them by boarding.

NOTE.—The perfect participle of several deponent verbs may be either active or passive in meaning (§ 190. b).

2. In other verbs, either by the perfect passive participle in the ablative absolute (§ 420. N.) or by a temporal clause (especially with cum or postquam):—

itaque convocātīs centuriōnibus mīlitēs certiōrēs facit (B. G. iii. 5), and so, having called the centurions together, he informs the soldiers (the centurions having been called together).

cum vēnisset animadvertit collem (id. vii. 44), having come (when he had come), he noticed a hill.

postquam id animum advertit cōpiās suās Caesar in proximum collem subdūcit (B. G. i. 24), having observed this (after he had observed this) Cæsar led his troops to the nearest hill.

Uses of Participles

494. The Present and Perfect Participles are sometimes used as attributives, nearly like adjectives:—

aeger et flagrāns animus (Tac. Ann. iii. 54), his sick and passionate mind.

cum antīquissimam sententiam tum comprobātam (Div. i. 11), a view at once most ancient and well approved.

sīgna numquam ferē mentientia (id. i. 15), signs hardly ever deceitful.

auspiciīs ūtuntur coāctīs (id. i. 27), they use forced auspices.

a. Participles often become complete adjectives, and may be compared, or used as nouns:—

quō mulierī esset rēs cautior (Caec. 11), that the matter might be more secure for the woman.

in illīs artibus praestantissimus (De Or. i. 217), preëminent in those arts.

sibi indulgentēs et corporī dēservientēs (Legg. i. 39), the self-indulgent, and slaves to the body (indulging themselves and serving the body).

rēctē facta paria esse dēbent (Par. 22), right deeds (things rightly done) ought to be like in value (see § 321. b).

male parta male dīlābuntur (Phil. ii. 65), ill got, ill spent (things ill acquired are ill spent).

cōnsuētūdō valentis (De Or. ii. 186), the habit of a man in health.

495. Participles are often used as Predicate Adjectives. As such they may be joined to the subject by esse or a copulative verb (see § 283):—

Gallia est dīvīsa (B. G. i. 1), Gaul is divided.

locus quī nunc saeptus est (Liv. i. 8), the place which is now enclosed.

vidētis ut senectūs sit operōsa et semper agēns aliquid et mōliēns (Cat. M. 26), you see how busy old age is, always aiming and trying at something.

nēmō adhūc convenīre mē voluit cui fuerim occupātus (id. 32), nobody hitherto has [ever] wished to converse with me, to whom I have been ``engaged.''

NOTE.—From this predicate use arise the compound tenses of the passive,— the participle of completed action with the incomplete tenses of esse developing the idea of past time: as, interfectus est, he was (or has been) killed, lit. he is having-been-killed (i.e. already slain).

The perfect participle used with fuī etc. was perhaps originally an intensified expression in the popular language for the perfect, pluperfect, etc.

At times these forms indicate a state of affairs no longer existing:—

cōtem quoque eōdem locō sitam fuisse memorant (Liv. i. 36. 5), they say that a whetstone was (once) deposited in this same place. [At the time of writing it was no longer there.]

arma quae fīxa in parietibus fuerant, humī inventa sunt (Div. i. 74), the arms which had been fastened on the walls were found upon the ground.

But more frequently they are not to be distinguished from the forms with sum etc.

The construction is found occasionally at all periods, but is most common in Livy and later writers.

496. The Present and Perfect Participles are often used as a predicate, where in English a phrase or a subordinate clause would be more natural. In this use the participles express time, cause, occasion, condition, concession, characteristic (or description), manner, means, attendant circumstances:—

volventēs hostīlia cadāvera amīcum reperiēbant (Sall. Cat. 61), while rolling over the corpses of the enemy they found a friend. [Time.]

paululum commorātus, sīgna canere iubet (id. 59), after delaying a little while, he orders them to give the signal. [Time.]

longius prōsequī veritus, ad Cicerōnem pervēnit (B. G. v. 52), because he feared to follow further, he came to Cicero. [Cause.]

quī scīret laxās dare iussus habēnās (Aen. i. 63), who might know how to give them loose rein when bidden. [Occasion.]

damnātum poenam sequī oportēbat (B. G. i. 4), if condemned, punishment must overtake him. [Condition.]

salūtem īnspērantibus reddidistī (Marc. 21), you have restored a safety for which we did not hope (to [us] not hoping). [Concession.]

Dardanius caput ecce puer dētēctus (Aen. x. 133), the Trojan boy with his head uncovered. [Description.]

nec trepidēs in ūsum poscentis aevī pauca (Hor. Od. ii. 11. 5), be not anxious for the needs of age that demands little. [Characteristic.]

incitātī fugā montīs altissimōs petēbant (B. C. iii. 93), in headlong flight they made for the highest mountains. [Manner.]

mīlitēs sublevātī aliī ab aliīs māgnam partem itineris cōnficerent (id. i. 68), the soldiers, helped up by each other, accomplished a considerable part of the route. [Means.]

hōc laudāns, Pompêius idem iūrāvit (id. iii. 87), approving this, Pompey took the same oath. [Attendant Circumstance.]

aut sedēns aut ambulāns disputābam (Tusc. i. 7), I conducted the discussion either sitting or walking. [Attendant Circumstance.]

NOTE 1.—notetext
These uses are especially frequent in the Ablative Absolute (§ 420).
NOTE 2.—notetext
A coördinate clause is sometimes compressed into a perfect participle:—

īnstrūctōs ōrdinēs in locum aequum dēdūcit (Sall. Cat. 59), he draws up the lines, and leads them to level ground.

ut hōs trāductōs necāret (B. G. v. 6), that he might carry them over and put them to death.

NOTE 3.—notetext
A participle with a negative often expresses the same idea which in English is given by without and a verbal noun: as,— miserum est nihil prōficientem angī (N. D. iii. 14), it is wretched to vex oneself without effecting anything.
NOTE 4.—notetext
Acceptum and expēnsum as predicates with ferre and referre are book-keeping terms: as,— quās pecūniās ferēbat eīs expēnsās (Verr. ii. 170), what sums he charged to them.

497. A noun and a passive participle are often so united that the participle and not the noun contains the main idea:—²¹⁴

ante conditam condendamve urbem (Liv. Pref.), before the city was built or building.

illī lībertātem imminūtam cīvium Rōmānōrum nōn tulērunt; vōs ēreptam vītam neglegētis (Manil. 11), they did not endure the infringement of the citizens' liberty; will you disregard the destruction of their lives?

post nātōs hominēs (Brut. 224), since the creation of man.

iam ā conditā urbe (Phil. iii. 9), even from the founding of the city.

a. The perfect participle with a noun in agreement, or in the neuter as an abstract noun, is used in the ablative with opus, need (cf. § 411. a):—

opus factō est viāticō (Pl. Trin. 887), there is need of laying in provision.

mātūrātō opus est (Liv. viii. 13. 17), there is need of haste.

b. The perfect participle with habeō (rarely with other verbs) has almost the same meaning as a perfect active, but denotes the continued effect of the action of the verb:—²¹⁵

fidem quam habent spectātam iam et diū cōgnitam (Caecil. 11), my fidelity, which they have proved and long known.

cohortīs in aciē LXXX cōnstitūtās habēbat (B. C. iii. 89), he had eighty cohorts stationed in line of battle.

nefāriōs ducēs captōs iam et comprehēnsōs tenētis (Cat. iii. 16), you have now captured the infamous leaders and hold them in custody.

c. A verb of effecting or the like may be used in combination with the perfect participle of a transitive verb to express the action of that verb more forcibly:—

praefectōs suōs multī missōs fēcērunt (Verr. iii. 134), many discharged their officers (made dismissed).

hīc trānsāctum reddet omne (Pl. Capt. 345), he will get it all done (restore it finished).

adēmptum tibi iam faxō omnem metum (Ter. Haut. 341), I will relieve you of all fear (make it taken away).

illam tibi incēnsam dabō (Ter. Ph. 974), I will make her angry with you.

NOTE.—Similarly volō (with its compounds) and cupiō, with a perfect participle without esse (cf. § 486. d).

d. After verbs denoting an action of the senses the present participle in agreement with the object is nearly equivalent to the infinitive of indirect discourse (§ 580), but expresses the action more vividly:

ut eum nēmō umquam in equō sedentem vīderit (Verr. v. 27), so that no one ever saw him sitting on a horse. [Cf. Tusc. iii. 31.]

NOTE.—The same construction is used after faciō, indūcō, and the like, with the name of an author as subject: as,— Xenophōn facit Sōcratem disputantem (N. D. i. 31), Xenophon represents Socrates disputing.

Future Participle (Active)

498. The Future Participle (except futūrus and ventūrus) is rarely used in simple agreement with a noun, except by poets and later writers.
a. The future participle is chiefly used with the forms of esse (often omitted in the infinitive) in the Active Periphrastic Conjugation (see § 195):—

morere, Diagorā, nōn enim in caelum adscēnsūrus es (Tusc. i. 111), die, Diagoras, for you are not likely to rise to heaven.

spērat adulēscēns diū sē vīctūrum (Cat. M. 68), the young man hopes to live long (that he shall live long).

neque petītūrus umquam cōnsulātum vidērētur (Off. iii. 79), and did not seem likely ever to be a candidate for the consulship.

b. With the past tenses of esse in the indicative, the future participle is often equivalent to the pluperfect subjunctive (§ 517. d). For fūturum fuisse, see § 589. b.

499. By later writers and the poets the Future Participle is often used in simple agreement with a substantive to express —
1. Likelihood or certainty:—

rem ausus plūs fāmae habitūram (Liv. ii. 10), having dared a thing which would have more repute.

2. Purpose, intention, or readiness:—

ēgreditur castrīs Rōmānus vāllum invāsūrus (Liv. iii. 60. 8), the Roman comes out of the camp with the intention of attacking the rampart.

dispersōs per agrōs mīlitēs equitibus invāsūrīs (id. xxxi. 36), while the horse were ready to attack the soldiers scattered through the fields.

sī peritūrus abīs (Aen. ii. 675), if you are going away to perish.

3. Apodosis:—

dedit mihi quantum maximum potuit, datūrus amplius sī potuisset (Plin. Ep. iii. 21. 6), he gave me as much as he could, ready to give me more if he had been able. [Here datūrus is equivalent to dedisset.]

Gerundive (Future Passive Participle)

NOTE.—The participle in -dus, commonly called the Gerundive, has two distinct uses:—

(1) Its predicate and attribute use as Participle or Adjective (§ 500).

(2) Its use with the meaning of the Gerund (§ 503). This may be called its gerundive use.

500. The Gerundive when used as a Participle or an Adjective is always passive, denoting necessity, obligation, or propriety. In this use of the Gerundive the following points are to be observed:—
1. The gerundive is sometimes used, like the present and perfect participles, in simple agreement with a noun:—

fortem et cōnservandum virum (Mil. 104), a brave man, and worthy to be preserved.

gravis iniūria facta est et nōn ferenda (Flacc. 84), a grave and intolerable wrong has been done.

2. The most frequent use of the gerundive is with the forms of esse in the Second (or passive) Periphrastic Conjugation (see § 196):—

nōn agitanda rēs erit (Verr. v. 179), will not the thing have to be agitated ?

3. The neuter gerundive of both transitive and intransitive verbs may be used impersonally in the second periphrastic conjugation. With verbs that take the dative or ablative, an object may be expressed in the appropriate case ; with transitive verbs, an object in the accusative is sometimes found:—

temporī serviendum est (Fam. ix. 7. 2), one must obey the time.

lēgibus pārendum est, the laws must be obeyed. ūtendum exercitātiōnibus modicīs (Cat. M. 36), we must use moderate exercise.

agitandumst vigiliās (Pl. Trin. 869), I have got to stand guard.

via quam nōbīs ingrediendum sit (Cat. M. 6), the way we have to enter.

SYNTAX: THE VERB
4. After verbs signifying to give, deliver, agree for, have, receive, undertake, demand,²¹⁶ a gerundive in agreement with the object is used to express purpose:—

redēmptor quī columnam illam condūxerat faciendam (Div. ii. 47), the contractor who had undertaken to make that column. [The regular construction with this class of verbs.]

aedem Castoris habuit tuendam (Verr. ii. 1. 150), he had the temple of Castor to take care of.

nāvīs atque onera adservanda cūrābat (id. v. 146), he took care that the ships and cargoes should be kept.

GERUND

501. The Gerund is the neuter of the Gerundive, used substantively in the Genitive, Dative, Accusative, and Ablative.

502. The Gerund expresses an action of the verb in the form of a verbal noun. As a noun the gerund is itself governed by other words ; as a verb it may take an object in the proper case:—

ars bene disserendī et vēra ac falsa dīiūdicandī (De Or. ii. 157), the art of discoursing well, and distinguishing the true and the false.

NOTE.—The Nominative of the gerund is supplied by the Infinitive. Thus in the example above, the verbal nouns discoursing and distinguishing, if used in the nominative, would be expressed by the infinitives disserere and dīiūdicāre. The Gerund is the neuter of the gerundive used impersonally, but retaining the verbal idea sufficiently to govern an object. It may therefore be regarded as a noun (cf. mātūrātō opus est, § 497. a) with a verbal force (cf. istanc tāctiō, p. 240, footnote).

GERUND AND GERUNDIVE

503. When the Gerund would have an object in the Accusative, the Gerundive²¹⁷ is generally used instead. The gerundive agrees with its noun, which takes the case that the gerund would have had:—

parātiōrēs ad omnia perīcula subeunda (B. G. i. 5), readier to undergo all dangers. [Here subeunda agrees with perīcula, which is itself governed by ad. The (inadmissible) construction with the gerund would be ad subeundum perīcula; ad governing the gerund, and the gerund governing the accusative perīcula.] For details, see §§ 504–507.

GENITIVE OF GERUND AND GERUNDIVE
NOTE 1.—In this use the gerund and the gerundive are translated in the same way, but have really a different construction. The gerundive is a passive participle, and agrees with its noun, though in translation we change the voice, just as we may translate vigiliae agitandae sunt (guard must be kept) by I must stand guard.

NOTE 2.—In the gerundive construction the verbs ūtor, fruor, etc., are treated like transitive verbs governing the accusative, as they do in early Latin (§ 410. a. N. 1) : as,— ad perfruendās voluptātēs (Off. i. 25), for enjoying pleasures.

a. The following examples illustrate the parallel constructions of Gerund and Gerundive:—

GEN. cōnsilium urbem capiendī a design of taking the city. DAT. dat operam agrōs colendō he attends to tilling the fields. ACC. veniunt ad mihi pārendum they come to obey me. it to seek peace. ABL. terit tempus scrībendō epistulās he spends time in writing letters.

NOTE 1.—The gerund with a direct object is practically limited to the Genitive and the Ablative
(without a preposition); even in these cases the gerundive is commoner.

NOTE 2.—The gerund or gerundive is often found coördinated with nominal constructions, and sometimes even in apposition with a noun:—

(1) in forō, in cūriā, in amīcōrum perīculīs prōpulsandīs (Phil. vii. 7), in the forum, in the senate-house, in defending my friends in jeopardy.

(2) ad rēs dīversissimās, pārendum atque imperandum (Liv. xxi. 4), for the most widely different things, obeying and commanding.

Genitive of the Gerund and Gerundive

504. The Genitive of the Gerund and Gerundive is used after nouns or adjectives, either as subjective or objective genitive:—

vīvendī fīnis est optimus (Cat. M. 72), it is the best end of living. [Subjective.]

neque cōnsilī habendī neque arma capiendī spatiō datō (B. G. iv. 14), time being given neither for forming plans nor for taking arms. [Objective.]

nōn tam commūtandārum quam ēvertendārum rērum cupidōs (Off. ii. 3), desirous not so much of changing as of destroying the state. [Objective.]

NOTE 1.—In these uses the gerund and the gerundive are about equally common.

NOTE 2.—In a few phrases the Infinitive is used with nouns which ordinarily have the genitive of the gerund or gerundive: as,— tempus est abīre, it is time to go.

a. The genitive of the gerund sometimes takes a direct object, especially a neuter pronoun or a neuter adjective used substantively:—

nūlla causa iūsta cuiquam esse potest contrā patriam arma capiendī (Phil. ii. 53), no one can have a just cause for taking up arms against his 53)country.

artem vēra ac falsa dīiūdicandī (De Or. ii. 157), the art of distinguishing true from false.

SYNTAX: THE VERB
NOTE 1.—The genitive of the gerund or gerundive is used (especially in later Latin) as a predicate genitive. When so used it often expresses purpose:—

quae postquam glōriōsa modo neque bellī patrandī cōgnōvit (Iug. 88), when he perceived that these were only brilliant deeds and not likely to end the war.

Aegyptum proficīscitur cōgnōscendae antīquitātis (Tac. Ann. ii. 59), he sets out for Egypt to study old times.

b. The genitive of the gerund or gerundive with causā or gratiā expresses purpose (§ 533. b):—

pābulandī aut frūmentandī causā prōgressī (B. C. i. 48), having advanced for the purpose of collecting fodder or supplies.

vītandae suspīcionis causā (Cat. i. 19), in order to avoid suspicion.

simulandī grātiā (Iug. 37), in order to deceive.

exercendae memōriae grātiā (Cat. M. 38), for the sake of training the memory.

c. The genitive of the gerund is occasionally limited by a noun or pronoun (especially a personal pronoun in the plural) in the objective genitive instead of taking a direct object:—

rêiciendī trium iūdicum potestās (Verr. ii. 77), the power of challenging three jurors (of the rejecting of three jurors).

suī colligendī facultās (B. G. iii. 6), the opportunity to recover themselves.

Dative of the Gerund and Gerundive

505. The Dative of the Gerund and Gerundive is used in a few expressions after verbs:—²¹⁸

diem praestitit operī faciendō (Verr. ii. 1. 148), he appointed a day for doing the work.

praeesse agrō colendō (Rosc. Am. 50), to take charge of cultivating the land.

esse solvendō, to be able to pay (to be for paying).

NOTE.—The dative of the gerund with a direct object is never found in classic Latin, but occurs twice in Plautus.

a. The dative of the gerund and gerundive is used after adjectives,²¹⁹ especially those which denote fitness or adaptability: —

genus armōrum aptum tegendīs corporibus (Liv. xxxii. 10), a sort of armor suited to the defence of the body.

reliqua tempora dēmetendīs frūctibus et percipiendīs accommodāta sunt (Cat. M. 70), the other seasons are fitted to reap and gather in the harvest.

perferendīs mīlitum mandātīs idōneus (Tac. Ann. i. 23), suitable for carrying out the instructions of the soldiers.

NOTE.—This construction is very common in Livy and later writers, infrequent in classical prose.
ABLATIVE OF GERUND AND GERUNDIVE
b. The dative of the gerund and gerundive is used in certain legal phrases after nouns meaning officers, offices, elections, etc., to indicate the function or scope of the office etc.:—

comitia cōnsulibus rogandīs (Div. i. 33), elections for nominating consuls.

triumvir colōniīs dēdūcundīs (Iug. 42), a triumvir for planting colonies.

triumvirī reī pūblicae cōnstituendae (title of the Triumvirate), triumvirs (a commission of three) for settling the government.

Accusative of the Gerund and Gerundive

506. The Accusative of the Gerund and Gerundive is used after the preposition ad, to denote Purpose (cf. § 533):—

mē vocās ad scrībendum (Or. 34), you summon me to write.

vīvis nōn ad dēpōnendam sed ad cōnfīrmandam audāciam (Cat. i. 4), you live not to put off but to confirm your daring.

nactus aditūs ad ea cōnanda (B. C. i. 31), having found means to undertake these things.

NOTE 1.—Other prepositions appear in this construction ; inter and ob a few times, circā, in, ante, and a few others very rarely: as, inter agendum (Ecl. ix. 24), while driving.

NOTE 2.—The Accusative of the gerund with a preposition never takes a direct object in classic Latin.

Ablative of the Gerund and Gerundive

507. The Ablative of the Gerund and Gerundive is used (1) to express manner,²²⁰ means, cause, etc.; (2) after Comparatives ; and (3) after the propositions ab, dē, ex, in, and (rarely) prō:—

(1) multa pollicendō persuādet (Iug. 46), he persuades by large promises.

Latīnē loquendō cuivīs pār (Brut. 128), equal to any man in speaking Latin.

hīs ipsīs legendīs (Cat. M. 21), by reading these very things.

obscūram atque humilem conciendō ad sē multitūdinem (Liv. i. 8), calling to them a mean and obscure multitude.

(2) nūllum officium referendā grātiā magis necessārium est (Off. i. 47), no duty is more important than repaying favors.

(3) in rē gerendā versārī (Cat. M. 17), to be employed in conducting affairs.

NOTE 1.—The Ablative of the Gerund and Gerundive is also very rarely used with verbs and adjectives: as,— nec continuandō abstitit magistrātū (Liv. ix. 34), he did not desist from continuing his magistracy.

NOTE 2.—The ablative of the gerund rarely takes a direct object in classic prose.
SYNTAX: THE VERB

SUPINE

508. The Supine is a verbal abstract of the fourth declension (§ 94. b), having no distinction of tense or person, and limited to two uses. (1) The form in -um is the Accusative of the end of motion (§ 428. i). (2) The form in -ū is usually Dative of purpose (§ 382), but the Ablative was early confused with it.

509. The Supine in -um is used after verbs of motion to express purpose. It may take an object in the proper case:—

quid est, īmusne sessum ? etsī admonitum vēnimus tē, nōn flāgitātum (De Or. iii. 17), how now, shall we be seated? though we have come to remind, not to entreat you.

nūptum dare (colloc=are), to give in marriage.

vēnērunt questum iniūriās (Liv. iii. 25), they came to complain of wrongs.

NOTE 1.—The supine in -um is especially common with eō, and with the passive infinitive =ir=i forms the future infinitive passive:—

fuēre cīvēs quī rem pūblicam perditum īrent (Sall. Cat. 36), there were citizens who went about to ruin the republic.

sī scīret sē trucīdātum īrī (Div. ii. 22), if he (Pompey) had known that he was going to be murdered. [Rare except in Cicero. For the more usual way of expressing the future passive infinitive, see § 569. 3. a.]

NOTE 2.—The supine in -um is occasionally used when motion is merely implied.

510. The Supine in -ū²²¹ is used with a few adjectives and with the nouns fās, nefās, and opus, to denote an action in reference to which the quality is asserted:—

rem nōn modo vīsū foedam, sed etiam audītū (Phil. ii. 63), a thing not only shocking to see, but even to hear of.

quaerunt quid optimum factū sit (Verr. ii. 1. 68), they ask what is best to do.

sī hōc fās est dictū (Tusc. v. 38), if this is lawful to say.

vidētis nefās esse dictū miseram fuisse tālem senectūtem (Cat. M. 13), you see it is a sin to say that such an old age was wretched.

NOTE 1.—The supine in -ū is thus in appearance an Ablative of Specification (§ 418).

NOTE 2.—The supine in -ū is found especially with such adjectives as indicate an effect on the senses or the feelings, and those which denote ease, difficulty, and the like. But with facilis, difficilis, and iūcundus, ad with the gerund is more common:—

nec vīsū facilis nec dictū adfābilis ūllī (Aen. iii. 621), he is not pleasant for any man to look at or address.

difficilis ad distinguendum similitūdō (De Or. ii. 212), a likeness difficult to distinguish.

NOTE 3.—With all these adjectives the poets often use the Infinitive in the same sense: as,— facil=es aurem praebēre (Prop. ii. 21. 15), indulgent to lend an ear.

NOTE 4.—The supine in -ū with a verb is extremely rare: as,— pudet dictū (Tac. Agr. 32), it is a shame to tell. [On the analogy of pudendum dictū.]
CONDITIONAL SENTENCES

CONDITIONAL SENTENCES

511. The Conditional Sentence differs from other complex sentences in this, that the form of the main clause (APODOSIS) is determined in some degree by the nature of the subordinate clause (PROTASIS) upon the truth of which the whole statement depends. Like all complex sentences, however, the Conditional Sentence has arisen from the use of two independent sentence-forms to express the parts of a thought which was too complicated to be fully expressed by a simple sentence. But because the thoughts thus expressed are in reality closely related, as parts of a single whole, the sentences which represent them are also felt to be mutually dependent, even though the relation is not expressed by any connecting word. Thus, Speak the word: my servant shall be healed is a simpler and an earlier form of expression than If thou speak the word, etc. The Conditional Particles were originally pronouns without conditional meaning: thus, sī, if, is a weak demonstrative of the same origin as sīc, so (sī-ce like hī-ce, see § 215. 5), and had originally the meaning of in that way, or in some way. Its relative sense (if) seems to have come from its use with sīc to make a pair of correlatives: thus …thus (see § 512. b). In its origin the Conditional Sentence assumed one of two forms. The condition was from the first felt to be a condition, not a fact or a command; but, as no special sentence-form for a condition was in use, it employed for its expression either a statement of fact (with the Indicative) or a form of mild command (the Subjunctive). From the former have come all the uses of the Indicative in protasis; from the latter all the uses of the Subjunctive in protasis. The Apodosis has either (1) the Indicative, expressing the conclusion as a fact, and the Present and Perfect Subjunctive, expressing it originally as future — and hence more or less doubtful — or (2) the Imperfect and Pluperfect Subjunctive expressing it as futūrum in praeteritō,²²² and so unfulfilled in the present or past. Thus,— rīdēs, mâiōre cachinnō concutitur, you laugh, he shakes with more boisterous laughter, is the original form for the Indicative in protasis and apodosis; sī rīdēs originally means merely you laugh in some way or other, and so, later, IF you laugh. So rogēs Aristōnem, neget, ask Aristo, he would say no, is the original form of the subjunctive in protasis and apodosis; sī rogēs would mean ask in some way or other. In sī rogāres, negāret, the Imperfect rogārēs transfers the command of rogēs to past time,²²³ with the meaning suppose you had asked, and sī would have the same meaning as before; while negāret transfers the future idea of neget to past time, and means he was going to deny. Now the stating of this supposition at all gives rise to the implication that it is untrue in point of fact,— because, if it were true, there would ordinarily be no need to state it as a supposition: for it would then be a simple fact, and as such would be put in the indicative.²²⁴ Such a condition or conclusion SYNTAX: CONDITIONAL SENTENCES (originally past, meaning suppose you had asked [yesterday], he was going to deny) same to express an unfulfilled condition in the present: suppose (or if) you were now asking, he would [now] deny — just as in English ought, which originally meant owed,²²⁵ has come to express a present obligation.

For the classification of Conditional Sentences, see § 513.

PROTASIS AND APODOSIS

512. A complete Conditional Sentence consists of two clauses the Protasis and the Apodosis. The clause containing the condition is called the PROTASIS the clause containing the conclusion is called the APODOSIS:—

sī quī exīre volunt [PROTASIS], cōnīvēre possum [APODOSIS] (Cat. ii. 27), if any wish to depart, I can keep my eyes shut.

sī est in exsiliō [PROTASIS], quid amplius postulātis [APODOSIS] (Lig. 13), if he is in exile, what more do you ask?

It should be carefully noted that the Apodosis is the main clause and the Protasis the dependent clause.
a. The Protasis is regularly introduced by the conditional particle sī, if, or one of its compounds.
NOTE.—These compounds are sīn, nisi, etiam sī, etsī, tametsī, tamenetsī (see Conditional and Concessive Particles, p. 138). An Indefinite Relative, or any relative or concessive word, may also serve to introduce a conditional clause: see Conditional Relative Clauses (§§ 519, 542) ; Concessive Clauses (§ 527).

b. The Apodosis is often introduced by some correlative word or phrase: as, ita, tum (rarely sīc), or eā condiciōne etc.:—

ita enim senectūs honesta est, sī sē ipsa dēfendit (Cat. M. 38), on this condition is old age honorable, if it defends itself.

sī quidem mē amāret, tum istuc prōdesset (Ter. Eun. 446), if he loved me, then this would be profitable.

sīc scrībēs aliquid, sī vacābis (Att. xii. 38. 2), if you are (shall be) at leisure, then you will write something.

c. The Apodosis is the principal clause of the conditional sentence, but may at the same time be subordinate to some other clause, and so appear in the form of a Participle, an Infinitive, or a Phrase:—

sepultūrā quoque prohibitūrī, nī rēx humārī iussisset (Q. C. viii. 2. 12), intending also to deprive him of burial, unless the king had ordered him to be interred. CLASSIFICATION OF CONDITIONS

quod sī praetereā nēmō sequātur, tamen sē cum sōlā decimā legiōne itūrum [esse] (B. G. i. 40. 14), but if no one else should follow, he would go with the tenth legion alone.

sī quōs adversum proelium commovēret, hōs reperīre posse (id. 40. 8), if the loss of a battle alarmed any, they might find, etc.

NOTE.—When the Apodosis itself is in Indirect Discourse, or in any other dependent construction, the verb of the Protasis is regularly in the Subjunctive (as in the above examples, see § 589).

CLASSIFICATION OF CONDITIONS

513. Conditions are either (1) Particular or (2) General.
1. A Particular Condition refers to a definite act or series of acts occurring at some definite time.
2. A General Condition refers to any one of a class of acts which may occur (or may have occurred) at any time.

514. The principal or typical forms of Conditional Sentences may be exhibited as follows:—

PARTICULAR CONDITIONS

A. SIMPLE CONDITIONS (nothing implied as to fulfilment) 1. Present Time Present Indicative in both clauses:—

sī adest, bene est, if he is [now] here, it is well.

2. Past Time Imperfect or Perfect Indicative in both clauses:—

sī aderat, bene erat, if he was [then] here, it was well.

sī adfuit, bene fuit, if he has been [was] here, it has been [was] well.

B. FUTURE CONDITIONS (as yet unfulfilled) 1. More Vivid a. Future Indicative in both clauses:—

sī aderit, bene erit, if he is (shall be) here, it will be well.

b. Future Perfect Indicative in protasis, Future Indicative in apodosis:—

sī adfuerit, bene erit, if he is (shall have been) here, it will [then] be well

SYNTAX: CONDITIONAL SENTENCES 2. Less Vivid a. Present Subjunctive in both clauses:—

sī adsit, bene sit, if he should be (or were to be) here, it would be well.

b. Perfect Subjunctive in protasis, Present Subjunctive in apodosis:—

sī adfuerit, bene sit, if he should be (should have been) here, it would [then] be well.

C. CONDITIONS CONTRARY TO FACT 1. Present Time Imperfect Subjunctive in both clauses:—

sī adesset, bene esset, if he were [now] here, it would be well (but he is NOT here).

2. Past Time Pluperfect Subjunctive in both clauses:—

sī adfuisset, bene fuisset, if he had [then] been here, it would have been well (but he was NOT here).

NOTE.—The use of tenses in Protasis is very loose in English. Thus if he is alive now is a PRESENT condition, to be expressed in Latin by the Present Indicative; if he is alive next year is a FUTURE condition, expressed in Latin by the Future Indicative. Again, if he were here now is a PRESENT condition contrary to fact, and would be expressed by the Imperfect Subjunctive ; if he were to see me thus is a FUTURE condition less vivid, to be expressed by the Present Subjunctive; and so too, if you advised him, he would attend may be future less vivid.²²⁶
D. GENERAL CONDITIONS General Conditions do not usually differ in form from Particular Conditions (A, B, and C), but are sometimes distinguished in the cases following:— 1. Present General Condition (Indefinite Time) a. Present Subjunctive second person singular (Indefinite Subject) in protasis, Present Indicative in apodosis:—

sī hōc dīcās, crēditur, if any one [ever] says this, it is [always] believed.

b. Perfect Indicative in protasis, Present Indicative in apodosis:

sī quid dīxit, crēditur

if he

says anything, it is

believed

SIMPLE PRESENT AND PAST CONDITIONS

2. Past General Condition

(Repeated Action in Past Time) a. Pluperfect Indicative in protasis, Imperfect Indicative in apodosis:—

sī quid dīxerat, crēdēbātur, if he [ever] said anything, it was [always] believed.

b. Imperfect Subjunctive in protasis, Imperfect Indicative in apodosis:—

sī quid dīceret, crēdēbātur, if he [ever] said anything, it was [always] believed ( w̄hatever he said was always believed). ²²⁷

PARTICULAR CONDITIONS

Simple Present and Past Conditions — Nothing Implied

515. In the statement of Present and Past conditions whose falsity is NOT implied, the Present and Past tenses of the Indicative are used in both Protasis and Apodosis:—

sī tū exercitusque valētis, bene est (Fam. v. 2), if you and the army are well, it is well. [Present Condition.]

haec igitur, sī Rōmae es; sīn abes, aut etiam sī ades, haec negōtia sīc sē habent (Att. v. 18), this, then, if you are at Rome; but if you are away — or even if you are there — these matters are as follows. [Present Condition.]

sī Caesarem probātis, in mē offenditis (B. C. ii. 32. 10), if you favor Cæsar, you find fault with me. [Present Condition.]

sī quī māgnīs ingeniīs in eō genere exstitērunt, nōn satis Graecōrum glōriae respondērunt (Tusc. i. 3), if any have shown themselves of great genius in that department, they have failed to compete with the glory of the Greeks. [Past General Condition, not distinguished in form from Particular.]

accēpī Rōmā sine epistulā tuā fasciculum litterārum in quō, sī modo valuistī et Rōmae fuistī, Philotīmī dūcō esse culpam nōn tuam (Att. v. 17), I have received from Rome a bundle of letters without any from you, which, provided you have been well and at Rome, I take to be the fault of Philotimus, not yours. [Mixed: Past condition and Present conclusion.]

quās litterās, sī Rōmae es, vidēbis putēsne reddendās (id. v. 18), as to this letter, if you are at Rome, you will see whether in your opinion it ought to be delivered. [Mixed: Present and Future.]

sī nēmō impetrāvit, adroganter rogō (Lig. 30), if no one has succeeded in obtaining it, my request is presumptuous. [Past and Present.]

SYNTAX: CONDITIONAL SENTENCES a. In these conditions the apodosis need not always be in the Indicative, but may assume any form, according to the sense:—

sī placet …videāmus (Cat. M. 15), if you please, let us see. [Hortatory Subjunctive, § 439.]

sī nōndum satis cernitis, recordāminī (Mil. 61), if you do not yet see clearly, recollect. [Imperative.]

sī quid habēs certius, velim scīre (Att. iv. 10), if you have any trustworthy information, I should like to know it. [Subjunctive of Modesty, § 447. 1.]

NOTE.—Although the form of these conditions does not imply anything as to the truth of the supposition, the sense or the context may of course have some such implication:—

nōlīte, sī in nostrō omnium flētū nūllam lacrimam aspexistis Milōnis, hōc minus ei parcere (Mil. 92), do not, if amid the weeping of us all you have seen no tear [in the eyes] of Milo, spare him the less for that.

petimus ā vōbīs, iūdicēs, sī qua dīvīna in tantīs ingeniīs commendātiō dēbet esse, ut eum in vestram accipiātis fidem (Arch. 31), we ask you, judges, if there ought to be anything in such genius to recommend it to us as by a recommendation of the gods, that you receive him under your protection.

In these two passages, the protasis really expresses cause: but the cause is put by the speaker in the form of a non-committal condition. His hearers are to draw the inference for themselves. In this way the desired impression is made on their minds more effectively than if an outspoken causal clause had been used.

Future Conditions

516. Future Conditions may be more vivid or less vivid. 1. In a more vivid future condition the protasis makes a distinct supposition of a future case, the apodosis expressing what will be the logical result. 2. In a less vivid future condition, the supposition is less distinct, the apodosis expressing what would be the result in the case supposed. a. In the more vivid future condition the Future Indicative is used in both protasis and apodosis:—

sānābimur, sī volēmus (Tusc. iii. 13), we shall be healed if we wish.

quod sī legere aut audīre volētis, …reperiētis (Cat. M. 20), if you will [shall wish to] read or hear, you will find.

NOTE.—In English the protasis is usually expressed by the Present Indicative, rarely by the Future with SHALL. Often in Latin the Present Indicative is found in the protasis of a condition of this kind (cf. § 468):—

sī vincimus, omnia nōbīs tūta erunt; sīn metū cesserimus, eadem illa advorsa fīent (Sall. Cat. 58), if we conquer, all things will be safe for us; but if we yield through fear, those same things will become hostile.

sī pereō, hominum manibus periisse iuvābit (Aen. iii. 606), if I perish, it will be pleasant to have perished at the hands of men.

FUTURE CONDITIONS b. In the less vivid future condition the Present Subjunctive is used in both protasis and apodosis:—

haec sī tēcum patria loquātur, nōnne impetrāre dēbeat (Cat. i. 19), if your country should thus speak with you, ought she not to prevail?

quod sī quis deus mihi largiātur, …valdē recūsem (Cat. M. 83), but if some god were to grant me this, I should stoutly refuse.

NOTE.—The Present Subjunctive sometimes stands in protasis with the Future (or the Present) Indicative in apodosis from a change in the point of view:—²²⁸

sī dīligenter attendāmus, intellegēmus (Inv. ii. 44), if we attend (should attend) carefully, we shall understand.

nisi hōc dīcat, ì̀ūre fēcī, ń́ōn habet dēfēnsiōnem (id. i. 18), unless he should say this, Ì̀ acted justifiably, h́́e has no defence.

c. If the conditional act is regarded as completed before that of the apodosis begins, the Future Perfect is substituted for the Future Indicative in protasis, and the Perfect Subjunctive for the Present Subjunctive:—

sīn cum potuerō nōn vēnerō, tum erit inimīcus (Att. ix. 2 A. 2), but if I do not come when I can, he will be unfriendly.

sī ā corōnā relictus sim, nōn queam dīcere (Brut. 192), if I should be deserted by the circle of listeners, I should not be able to speak.

NOTE.—The Future Perfect is often used in the apodosis of a future condition: as,— vehementer mihi grātum fēceris, sī hunc adulēscentem hūmānitāte tuā comprehenderis (Fam. xiii. 15), you will do (will have done) me a great favor, if you receive this young man with your usual courtesy.
d. Any form denoting or implying future time may stand in the apodosis of a future condition. So the Imperative, the participles in -dus and -rus, and verbs of necessity, possibility, and the like:—

alius fīnis cōnstituendus est, sī prius quid maximē reprehendere Scīpiō solitus sit dīxerō (Lael. 59), another limit must be set, if I first state what Scipio was wont most to find fault with.

sī mē praecēperit fātum, vōs mandāsse mementō (Q. C. ix. 6. 26), if fate cuts me off too soon, do you remember that I ordered this.

nisi oculīs vīderitis īnsidiās Milōnī ā Clōdiō factās, nec dēprecātūrī sumus nec postulātūrī (Mil. 6), unless you see with your own eyes the plots laid against Milo by Clodius, I shall neither beg nor demand, etc.

nōn possum istum accūsāre, sī cupiam (Verr. iv. 87), I cannot accuse him, if I should (so) desire.

SYNTAX: CONDITIONAL SENTENCES e. Rarely the Perfect Indicative is used in apodosis with a Present or even a Future (or Future Perfect) in protasis, to represent the conclusion rhetorically as already accomplished:—

sī hōc bene fīxum in animō est, vīcistis (Liv. xxi. 44), if this is well fixed in your minds, you have conquered. [For you will have conquered.]

sī eundem [animum] habueritis, vīcimus (id. xxi. 43), if you shall have kept the same spirit, we have conquered.

f. A future condition is frequently thrown back into past time, without implying that it is contrary to fact (§ 517). In such cases the Imperfect or Pluperfect Subjunctive may be used:—

nōn poterat, nisi dēcertāre vellet (B. C. iii. 44), he was not able, unless he wished to fight.

tumulus appāruit, …sī lūce palam īrētur hostis praeventūrus erat (Liv. xxii. 24), a hill appeared …if they should go openly by daylight, the enemy would prevent. [The first two appear like Indirect Discourse, but are not. An observer describing the situation in the first example as present would say nōn potest nisi velit (see d), and no indirect discourse would be thought of.]

Caesar sī peteret, …nōn quicquam prōficeret (Hor. S. i. 3. 4), if even Cæsar were to ask, he would gain nothing. [Here the construction is not contrary to fact, but is simply sī petat, nōn prōficiat, thrown into past time.]

Conditions Contrary to Fact

517. In the statement of a supposition impliedly false, the Imperfect and Pluperfect Subjunctive are used in both protasis and apodosis.²²⁹ The Imperfect refers to present time, the Pluperfect to past:—

sī vīveret, verba êius audīrētis (Rosc. Com. 42), if he were living, you would hear his words. [Present.]

nisi tū āmīsissēs, numquam recēpissem (Cat. M. 11), unless you had lost it, I should not have recovered it. [Past.]

sī meum cōnsilium valuisset, tū hodiē egērēs, rēs pūblica nōn tot ducēs āmīsisset (Phil. ii. 37), if my judgment had prevailed [as it did not], you would this day be a beggar, and the republic would not have lost so many leaders. [Mixed Present and Past.]

CONDITIONS CONTRARY TO FACT a. In conditions contrary to fact the Imperfect often refers to past time, both in protasis and apodosis, especially when a repeated or continued action is denoted, or when the condition if true would still exist:

sī nihil litterīs adiuvārentur, numquam sē ad eārum studium contulissent (Arch. 16), if they had not been helped at all by literature, they never would have given their attention to the study of it. [Without the condition, adiuvābantur.]

hīc sī mentis esset suae, ausus esset ēdūcere exercitum (Pison. 50), if he were of sane mind, would he have dared to lead out the army? [Here esset denotes a continued state, past as well as present.]

nōn concidissent, nisi illud receptāculum classibus nostrīs patēret (Verr. ii. 3), [the power of Carthage] would not have fallen, unless that station had been [constantly] open to our fleets. [Without the condition, patēbat.]

b. In the apodosis of a condition contrary to fact the past tenses of the Indicative may be used to express what was intended, or likely, or already begun. In this use, the Imperfect Indicative corresponds in time to the Imperfect Subjunctive, and the Perfect or Pluperfect Indicative to the Pluperfect Subjunctive:—

sī licitum esset, mātrēs veniēbant (Verr. v. 129), the mothers were coming if it had been allowed.

in amplexūs fīliae ruēbat, nisi līctōrēs obstitissent (Tac. Ann. xvi. 32), he was about rushing into his daughterś arms, unless the lictors had opposed.

iam tūta tenēbam, nī gēns crūdēlis ferrō invāsisset (Aen. vi. 358), I was just reaching a place of safety, had not the fierce people attacked me.

NOTE 1.—Here the apodosis may be regarded as elliptical. Thus, — mātrēs veniēbant (et vēnissent), the matrons were coming (and would have kept on) if, etc.

NOTE 2.—With paene (and sometimes prope), almost, the Perfect Indicative is used in the apodosis of a past condition contrary to fact: as,— pōns iter paene hostibus dedit, nī ūnus vir fuisset (Liv. ii. 10), the bridge had almost given a passage to the foe, if it had not been for one hero.
c. Verbs and other expressions denoting necessity, propriety, possibility, duty, when used in the apodosis of a condition contrary to fact, may be put in the Imperfect or Perfect Indicative. Such are oportet, decet, dēbeō, possum, necesse est, opus est, and the Second Periphrastic Conjugation:—²³⁰

nōn potuit fierī sapiēns, nisi nātus esset (Fin. ii. 103), he could not have become a sage, if he had not been born.

sī prīvātus esset hōc tempore, tamen is erat dēligendus (Manil. 50), if he were at this time a private citizen, yet he ought to be appointed.

SYNTAX: CONDITIONAL SENTENCES

quod esse caput dēbēbat, sī probārī posset (Fin. iv. 23), what ought to be the main point, if it could be proved.

sī ita putāsset, certē optābilius Milōnī fuit (Mil. 31), if he had thought so, surely it would have been preferable for Milo.

NOTE 1.—In Present conditions the Imperfect Subjunctive (oportēret, possem, etc.) is the rule, the Indicative being rare; in Past conditions both the Subjunctive (usually Pluperfect) and the Indicative (usually Perfect) are common.

For pār erat, melius fuit, and the like, followed by the infinitive, see § 521. N.

NOTE 2.—The indicative construction is carried still further in poetry: as,— sī nōn alium iactāret odōrem, laurus erat (Georg. ii. 133), it were a laurel, but for giving out a different odor.
d. The participle in -ūrus with eram or fuī may take the place of an Imperfect or Pluperfect Subjunctive in the apodosis of a condition contrary to fact:—

quid enim futūrum fuit [ f̄uisset], sī … (Liv. ii. 1), what would have happened if, etc.

relictūrī agrōs erant, nisi ad eōs Metellus litterās mīsisset (Verr. iii. 121), they would have abandoned their fields, if Metellus had not sent them a letter.

neque ambigitur quīn …id factūrus fuerit, sī … (Liv. ii. 1), nor is there any question that he would have done it, if, etc. [Direct: fēcisset.]

adeō parāta sēditiō fuit ut Othōnem raptūrī fuerint, nī incerta noctis timuissent (Tac. H. i. 26), so far advanced was the conspiracy that they would have seized upon Otho, had they not feared the hazards of the night. [In a main clause: rapuissent, nī timuissent.]

e. The Present Subjunctive is sometimes used in poetry in the protasis and apodosis of conditions contrary to fact:—

nī comes admoneat, inruat (Aen. vi. 293), had not his companion warned him, he would have rushed on. [Cf. tū sī hīc sīs, aliter sentiās (Ter. And. 310), if you were in my place, you would think differently.]

NOTE 1.—This is probably a remnant of an old construction (see next note).

NOTE 2.—In old Latin the Present Subjunctive (as well as the Imperfect) is used in present conditions contrary to fact and the Imperfect (more rarely the Pluperfect) in past conditions of the same kind. Thus it appears that the Imperfect Subjunctive, like the Imperfect Indicative, once denoted past time, even in conditional sentences. Gradually, however, in conditional sentences, the Present Subjunctive was restricted to the less vivid future and the Imperfect (in the main) to the present contrary to fact, while the Pluperfect was used in past conditions of this nature. The old construction, however, seems to have been retained as an archaism in poetry.
f. In Plautus and Terence absque mē (tē, etc.) is sometimes used to introduce conditions contrary to fact:—

absque tē esset, hodiē nusquam vīverem (Pl. Men. 1022), if it were not for you, I should not be alive to-day.

absque eō esset, rēctē ego mihi vīdissem (Ter. Ph. 188), if it had not been for him, I should have looked out for myself.

GENERAL CONDITIONS

518. General Conditions (§ 513. 2) have usually the same forms as Particular Conditions. But they are sometimes distinguished in the following cases:— a. The Subjunctive is often used in the second person singular, to denote the act of an indefinite subject (you āny one). Here the Present Indicative of a general truth may stand in the apodosis:—

vīta hūmāna prope utī ferrum est: sī exerceās, conteritur ; sī nōn exerceās, tamen rōbīgō interficit (Cato de M.), human life is very like iron: if you use it, it wears away; if you dont́ use it, rust still destroys it.

virtūtem necessāriō glōria, etiamsī tū id nōn agās, cōnsequitur (Tusc. i. 91), glory necessarily follows virtue, even if that is not oneś aim.

sī prohibita impūne trānscenderis, neque metus ultrā neque pudor est (Tac. Ann. iii. 54), if you once overstep the bounds with impunity, there is no fear or shame any more.

b. In a general condition in present time, the protasis often takes the Perfect Indicative, and the apodosis the Present Indicative. For past time, the Pluperfect is used in the protasis, and the Imperfect in the apodosis:—

sī quōs aliquā parte membrōrum inūtilīs nōtāvērunt, necārī iubent (Q. C. ix. 1. 25), if they [ever] mark any infirm in any part of their limbs, they [always] order them to be put to death. [Present.]

sī ā persequendō hostīs dēterrēre nequīverant, ab tergō circumveniēbant (Iug. 50), if [ever] they were unable to prevent the enemy from pursuing, they [always] surrounded them in the rear. [Past.]

c. In later writers (rarely in Cicero and Cæsar), the Imperfect and Pluperfect Subjunctive are used in protasis, with the Imperfect Indicative in apodosis, to state a repeated or customary action in past time (Iterative Subjunctive):—

sī quis ā dominō prehenderētur, concursū mīlitum ēripiēbātur (B. C. iii. 110), if any (runaway) was arrested by his master, he was (always) rescued by a mob of soldiers.

accūsātōrēs, sī facultās incideret, poenīs adficiēbantur (Tac. Ann. vi. 30), the accusers, whenever opportunity offered, were visited with punishment.

sī quis collēgam appellāsset, ab eō ita discēdēbat ut paenitēret nōn priōris dēcrētō stetisse (Liv. iii. 36. 8), if any one appealed to a colleague, he [always] came off in such case that he repented not having submitted to the decree of the former decemvir. [Cf. Sōcratēs, quam sē cumque in partem dedisset, omnium fuit facile prīnceps (De Or. iii. 60), in whatever direction Socrates turned himself, he was (always) easily the foremost (if in any. etc.).]

SYNTAX: CONDITIONAL SENTENCES

Conditional Relative Clauses

519. A clause introduced by a Relative Pronoun or Relative Adverb may express a condition and take any of the constructions of Protasis²³¹ (§ 514):—

quī enim vitiīs modum adpōnit, is partem suscipit vitiōrum (Tusc. iv. 42), he who [only] sets a limit to faults, takes up the side of the faults. [ sī quis adpōnit. P̄resent, nothing implied.]

quī mentīrī solet, pēierāre cōnsuēvit (Rosc. Com. 46), whoever is in the habit of lying, is accustomed to swear falsely. [ sī quis solet. P̄resent, nothing implied.]

quicquid potuit, potuit ipsa per sē (Leg. Agr. i. 20), whatever power she had, she had by herself. [ sī quid potuit. P̄ast, nothing implied.]

quod quī faciet, nōn aegritūdine sōlum vacābit, sed, etc. (Tusc. iv. 38), and he who does (shall do) this, will be free not only, etc. [ sī quis faciet. F̄uture, more vivid.]

quisquis hūc vēnerit, vāpulābit (Pl. Am. 309), whoever comes here shall get a thrashing. [ sī quis vēnerit. F̄uture, more vivid.]

quō volēs, sequar (Clu. 71), whithersoever you wish (shall wish), I will follow. [ sī quō volēs. F̄uture, more vivid.]

philosophia, cui quī pāreat, omne tempus aetātissine molestiā possit dēgere (Cat. M. 2), philosophy, which if any one should obey, he would be able to spend his whole life without vexation. [ sī quis pāreat. F̄uture, less vivid.]

quaecumque vōs causa hūc attulisset, laetārer (De Or. ii. 15), I should be glad whatever cause had brought you here (i.e. if any other, as well as the one which did). [ sī …attulisset. C̄ontrary to fact.]

The relative in this construction is always indefinite in meaning, and very often in form. 520. The special constructions of General Conditions are sometimes found in Conditional Relative Clauses:— 1. The Second Person Singular of the Subjunctive in the protasis with the Indicative of a general truth in the apodosis (§ 518. a):—

bonus tantum modo sēgnior fit ubi neglegās, at malus improbior (Iug. 31. 28), a good man merely becomes less diligent when you dont́ watch him, but a bad man becomes more shameless. [Present General Condition.]

2. The Perfect or Pluperfect Indicative in the protasis and the Present or Imperfect Indicative in the apodosis (§ 518. b):—

cum hūc vēnī, hōc ipsum nihil agere mē dēlectat (De Or. ii. 24), whenever I come here, this very doing nothing delights me (whenever I have come, etc.). [Present General Condition.]

CONDITION DISGUISED

cum rosam vīderat, tum incipere vēr arbitrābātur (Verr. v. 27), whenever he saw (had seen) a rose, then he thought spring was beginning. [Past General Condition.]

3. In later writers (rarely in Cicero and Cæsar) the Imperfect or Pluperfect Subjunctive in the protasis and the Imperfect Indicative in the apodosis (§ 518. c):—

ubi imbēcillitās māteriae postulāre vidērētur, pīlae interpōnuntur (B. C. ii. 16), wherever the weakness of the timber seemed to require, piles were put between. [Past General Condition: interpōnuntur īnterpōnēbantur.]

quōcumque sē intulisset, victōriam sēcum trahēbat (Liv. vi. 8), wherever he advanced, he carried victory with him. [Past General Condition.]

Condition Disguised

521. In many sentences properly conditional, the Protasis is not expressed by a conditional clause, but is stated in some other form of words or implied in the nature of the thought. a. The condition may be implied in a Clause, or in a Participle, Noun, Adverb, or some other word or phrase:—

facile mē paterer — illō ipsō iūdice quaerente — prō Sex. Rōsciō dīcere (Rosc. Am. 85), I should readily allow myself to speak for Roscius if that very judge were conducting the trial. [Present contrary to fact: sī quaereret, paterer.]

nōn mihi, nisi admonitō, vēnisset in mentem (De Or. ii. 180), it would not have come into my mind unless [I had been] reminded. [Past contrary to fact: nisi admonitus essem.]

nūlla alia gēns tantā mōle clādis nōn obruta esset (Liv. xxii. 54), there is no other people that would not have been crushed by such a weight of disaster. [Past contrary to fact: sī alia fuisset.]

nēmō umquam sine māgnā spē immortālitātis sē prō patriā offerret ad mortem (Tusc. i. 32), no one, without great hope of immortality, would ever expose himself to death for his country. [Present contrary to fact: nisi māgnam spem habēret.]

quid hunc paucōrum annōrum accessiō iuvāre potuisset (Lael. 11), what good could the addition of a few years have done him (if they had been added)? [Past contrary to fact: sī accessissent.]

quid igitur mihi ferārum laniātus oberit nihil sentientī (Tusc. i. 104), what harm will the mangling by wild beasts do me if I dont́ feel anything (feeling nothing)? [Future more vivid: sī nihil sentiam.]

incitāta semel prōclīvī lābuntur sustinērīque nūllō modō possunt (id. iv. 42), if once given a push, they slide down rapidly and can in no way be checked. [Present General: sī incitāta sunt.]

SYNTAX: CONDITIONAL SENTENCES
NOTE.—In several phrases denoting necessity, propriety, or the like, the Imperfect, Perfect, or Pluperfect Indicative of esse is used in the apodosis of a condition contrary to fact, the protasis being implied in a subject infinitive (cf. 517. c):—

quantō melius fuerat prōmissum nōn esse servātum (Off. iii. 94), how much better would it have been if the promise had not been kept! [prōmissum …servātum s̄ī prōmissum nōn esset servātum.]

morī praeclārum fuit (Att. viii. 2. 2), it would have been honorable to die.

sed erat aequius Triārium aliquid dē dissēnsiōne nostrā iūdicāre (Fin. ii. 119), but it would be more equitable if Triarius passed judgment on our dispute. [Triārium iūdicāre s̄ī Triārius iūdicāret.]

satius fuit āmittere mīlitēs (Inv. ii. 73), it would have been better to lose the soldiers. [āmittere s̄ī āmīsisset.]

b. The condition may be contained in a wish (Optative Subjunctive), or expressed as an exhortation or command (Hortatory Subjunctive or Imperative):—

utinam quidem fuissem ! molestus nōbīs nōn esset (Fam. xii. 3), I wish I had been [chief]: he would not now be troubling us (i.e. if I had been). [Optative Subjunctive.]

nātūram expellās furcā, tamen ūsque recurret (Hor. Ep. i. 10. 24), drive out nature with a pitchfork, still she will ever return. [Hortatory.]

rogēs enim Aristōnem, neget (Fin. iv 69), for ask Aristo, he would deny.

manent ingenia senibus, modo permaneat studium et industria (Cat. M. 22), old men keep their mental powers, only let them keep their zeal and diligence (§ 528. N.). [Hortatory.]

tolle hanc opīniōnem, lūctum sustuleris (Tusc. i. 30), remove this notion, and you will have done away with grief. [Imperative.]

NOTE.—The so-called Concessive Subjunctive with ut and nē often has the force of protasis (§ 527. a. N.): as,— ut enim ratiōnem Platō nūllam adferret, ipsā auctōritāte mē frangeret (Tusc. i. 49), even if Plato gave no reasons, [still] he would overpower me by his mere authority.
c. Rarely the condition takes the form of an independent clause:

rīdēs: mâiōre cachinnō concutitur (Iuv. iii. 100), you laugh ; he shakes with louder laughter ( īf you laugh, he shakes).

commovē: sentiēs (Tusc. iv. 54), stir him up, [and] youĺl find, etc.

dē paupertāte agitur: multī patientēs pauperēs commemorantur (id. iii. 57), we speak of poverty; many patient poor are mentioned.

For Conditional Relative Clauses, see §§ 519, 520.

Condition Omitted

522. The Protasis is often wholly omitted, but may be inferred from the course of the argument:—

poterat Sextilius impūne negāre: quis enim redargueret (Fin. ii. 55), Sextilius might have denied with impunity; for who would prove him wrong (if he had denied)?

COMPLEX CONDITIONS a. In expressions signifying necessity, propriety, and the like, the Indicative may be used in the apodosis of implied conditions, either future or contrary to fact:—

quod contrā decuit ab illō meum [corpus cremārī] (Cat. M. 84), whereas on the other hand mine ought to have been burnt by him.

nam nōs decēbat domum lūgēre ubi esset aliquis in lūcem ēditus (Tusc. i. 115), for it were fitting for us to mourn the house where a man has been born (but we do not).

quantō melius fuerat (Off. iii. 94), how much better it would have been.

illud erat aptius, aequum cuique concēdere (Fin. iv. 2), it would be more fitting to yield each one his rights.

ipsum enim exspectāre māgnum fuit (Phil. ii. 103), would it have been a great matter to wait for the man himself?

longum est ea dīcere, sed … (Sest. 12), it would be tedious to tell, etc. [Future.]

NOTE 1.—In this construction, the Imperfect Indicative refers to present time; the Pluperfect to simple past time, like the Perfect. Thus oportēbat means it ought to be [now], but is not; oportuerat means it ought to have been, but was not.

NOTE 2.—In many cases it is impossible to say whether a protasis was present to the mind of the speaker or not (see third example above).

Complex Conditions

523. Either the Protasis or the Apodosis may be a complex idea in which the main statement is made with expressed or implied qualifications. In such cases the true logical relation of the parts is sometimes disguised:—

sī quis hōrum dīxisset …sī verbum dē rē pūblicā fēcisset …multa plūra dīxisse quam dīxisset putārētur (Rosc. Am. 2), if any of these had spoken, in case he had said a word about politics he would be thought to have said much more than he did say. [Here the apodosis of dīxisset is the whole of the following statement (sī …putārētur), which is itself conditioned by a protasis of its own: sī verbum, etc.].

quod sī in hōc mundō flerī sine deō nōn potest, nē in sphaerā quidem eōsdem mōtūs sine dīvīnō ingeniō potuisset imitārī (Tusc. i. 63), now if that cannot be done in this universe without divine agency, no more could [Archimedes] in his orrery have imitated the same revolutions without divine genius. [Here sī potest (a protasis with nothing implied) has for its apodosis the whole clause which follows, but potuisset has a contrary-to-fact protasis of its own implied in sine …ingeniō.]

peream male sī nōn optimum erat (Hor. S. ii. 1. 6), confound me (may I perish wretchedly) if it wouldnt́ be better. [Here peream is apodosis to the rest of the sentence, while the true protasis to optimum erat, contrary to fact, is omitted.]

SYNTAX: CONDITIONAL SENTENCES

Clauses of Comparison (Conclusion Omitted)

524. Conditional Clauses of Comparison take the Subjunctive, usually in the Present or Perfect unless the sequence of tenses requires the Imperfect or Pluperfect. Such clauses are introduced by the comparative particles tamquam, tamquam sī, quasi, ac sī, ut sī, velut sī (later velut), poetic ceu (all meaning as if), and by quam sī (than if):—

tamquam clausa sit Asia (Fam. xii. 9), as if Asia were closed.

tamquam sī claudus sim (Pl. Asin. 427), just as if I were lame.

ita hōs [honōrēs] petunt, quasi honestē vīxerint (Iug. 85), they seek them (offices) just as if they had lived honorably.

quasi vērō nōn speciē vīsa iūdicentur (Acad. ii. 58), as if forsooth visible things were not judged by their appearance.

similiter facis ac sī mē rogēs (N. D. iii. 8), you do exactly as if you asked me.

crūdēlitātem horrērent velut sī cōram adesset (B. G. i. 32), they dreaded his cruelty (they said), as if he were present in person.

hīc ingentem pūgnam cernimus ceu cētera nusquam bella forent (Aen. ii. 438), here we saw a great battle, as if there were no fighting elsewhere. [But sometimes with the indicative in poetry, as id. v. 88.]

magis ā mē abesse vidēbāre quam sī domī essēs (Att. vi. 5), you seemed to be absent from me more than if you were at home.

NOTE 1.—These subjunctive clauses are really future conditions with apodosis implied in the particle itself. Thus in tamquam sī claudus sim the protasis is introduced by sī, and the apodosis implied in tamquam.

NOTE 2.—The English idiom would lead us to expect the Imperfect and Pluperfect Subjunctive (contrary to fact) with these particles; but the point of view is different in the two languages. Thus the second example above is translated just as if I were lame,— as if it were a present condition contrary to fact; but it really means just as [it would be] if I should [at some future time] be lame, and so is a less vivid future condition requiring the Present Subjunctive. Similarly quasi honestē vīxerint, as if they had lived honorably, is really as [they would do in the future] if they should have lived honorably and so requires the Perfect Subjunctive (§ 516. c).
a. Even after a primary tense, the Imperfect or Pluperfect Subjunctive (contrary to fact) is often used in conditional clauses of comparison:—

aequē ā tē petō ac sī mea negōtia essent (Fam. xiii. 43), I entreat you as much as if it were my own business.

êius negōtium sīc velim suscipiās ut sī esset rēs mea (id. vii. 20. 1), I would have you undertake his business as though it were my affair.

NOTE.—The practice differs with the different particles. Thus in Cicero a clause with tamquam or quasi almost always observes the sequence of tenses, but with quam sī the Imperfect or Pluperfect is the rule.
USE OF SĪ AND ITS COMPOUNDS

Use of sī and its Compounds

525. The uses of some of the more common Conditional Particles may be stated as follows:— a. Sī is used for affirmative, nisi (nī) and sī nōn for negative conditions.

1. With nisi (generally unless) the apodosis is stated as universally true except in the single case supposed, in which case it is (impliedly) not true: —

nisi Conōn adest, maereō, unless Conon is here, I mourn (i.e. I am always in a state of grief except in the single case of Cononś presence, in which case I am not).

2. With sī nōn (if not) the apodosis is only stated as true in the (negative) case supposed, but as to other cases no statement is made:—

sī Conōn nōn adest, maereō, if Conon is not here, I mourn (i.e. I mourn in the single case of Cononś absence, nothing being said as to other cases in which I may or may not mourn).

NOTE.—It often makes no difference in which of these forms the condition is stated.

3. Sometimes nisi sī, except if, unless, occurs:—

nōlī putāre mē ad quemquam longiōrēs epistulās scrībere, nisi sī quis ad mē plūra scrīpsit (Fam. xiv. 2), …except in case one writes more to me.

NOTE.—Nī is an old form surviving in a few conventional phrases and reappearing in poets and later writers.
b. Nisi vērō and nisi forte regularly introduce an objection or exception ironically, and take the Indicative:—

nisi vērō L. Caesar crūdēlior vīsus est (Cat. iv. 13), unless indeed Lucius Cæsar seemed too cruel.

nisi forte volumus Epicūrēōrum opīniōnem sequī (Fat. 37), unless, to be sure, we choose to follow the notion of the Epicureans.

NOTE.—This is the regular way of introducing a reductio ad absurdum in Latin. Nisi alone is sometimes used in this sense: as,— nisi ūnum hōc faciam ut in puteō cēnam coquant (Pl. Aul. 365), unless I do this one thing, [make them] cook dinner in the well.
c. Sīve (seu) …sīve (seu), whether …or, introduce a condition in the form of an alternative. They may be used with any form of condition, or with different forms in the two members. Often also they are used without a verb:—

nam illō locō libentissimē soleō ūtī, sīve quid mēcum ipse cōgitō, sīve quid scrībō aut legō (Legg. ii. 1), for I enjoy myself most in that place, whether I am thinking by myself, or am either writing or reading.

NOTE.—Sīve …seu and seu …sīve are late or poetic.
SYNTAX: CONCESSIVE CLAUSES d. Sīn, but if, often introduces a supposition contrary to one that precedes:—

accūsātor illum dēfendet sī poterit; sīn minus poterit, negābit (Inv. ii. 88), the accuser will defend him if he can; but if he cannot, he will deny.

e. Nisi is often used loosely by the comic poets in the sense of only when a negative (usually nesciō) is expressed, or easily understood, in the main clause:—

nesciō: nisi mē dīxisse nēminī certō sciō (Ter. Ph. 952), I dont́ know: only I am sure that I havent́ told anybody.

CONCESSIVE CLAUSES

526. The concessive idea is rather vague and general, and takes a variety of forms, each of which has its distinct history. Sometimes concession is expressed by the Hortatory Subjunctive in a sentence grammatically independent (§ 440), but it is more frequently and more precisely expressed by a dependent clause introduced by a concessive particle. The concessive force lies chiefly in the Conjunctions (which are indefinite or conditional in origin), and is often made clearer by an adversative particle (tamen, certē) in the main clause. As the Subjunctive may be used in independent clauses to express a concession, it is also employed in concessive clauses, and somewhat more frequently than the indicative. 527. The Particles of Concession (meaning although, granting that) are quamvīs, ut, licet, etsī, tametsī, etiam sī, quamquam, and cum. Some of these take the Subjunctive, others the Indicative, according to the nature of the clause which each introduces. a. Quamvīs and ut take the Subjunctive:—

quamvīs ipsī īnfantēs sint, tamen … (Or. 76), however incapable of speaking they themselves may be, yet, etc.

quamvīs scelerātī illī fuissent (De Or. i. 230), however guilty they might have been.

quamvīs cōmis in amīcīs tuendīs fuerit (Fin. ii. 80), amiable as he may have been in keeping his friends.

ut nēminem alium rogāsset (Mil. 46), even if he had asked no other.

ut enim nōn efficiās quod vīs, tamen mors ut malum nōn sit efficiēs (Tusc. i. 16), for even if you do not accomplish what you wish, still you will prove that death is not an evil.

ut ratiōnem Platō nūllam adferret (id. i. 49), though Plato adduced no reasons.

NOTE.—Quamvīs means literally as much as you will. Thus in the first example above, let them be as incapable as you will, still, etc. The subjunctive with quamvīs is hortatory, like that with nē (§ 440); that with ut (ut nōn) is of uncertain origin.
b. Licet, although, takes the Present or Perfect Subjunctive:—

licet omnēs mihi terrōrēs perīculaque impendeant (Rosc. Am. 31), though all terrors and perils should menace me.

CONCESSIVE CLAUSES
NOTE.—Licet is properly a verb in the present tense, meaning it is granted. Hence the subjunctive is by the sequence of tenses limited to the Present and Perfect. The concessive clause with licet is hortatory in origin, but may be regarded as a substantive clause serving as the subject of the impersonal verb (§ 565. N. 1).
c. Etsī, etiam sī, tametsī, even if, take the same constructions as sī (see § 514):—

etsī abest mātūritās, tamen nōn est inūtile (Fam. vi. 18. 4), though ripeness of age is wanting, yet it is not useless, etc.

etsī numquam dubium fuit, tamen perspiciō (id. v. 19), although it has never been doubtful, yet I perceive, etc.

etsī statueram (id. v. 5), though I had determined.

etsī nihil aliud abstulissētis, tamen contentōs vōs esse oportēbat (Sull. 90), even if you had taken away nothing else, you ought to have been satisfied.

etiam sī quod scrībās nōn habēbis, scrībitō tamen (Fam. xvi. 26), even if you [shall] have nothing to write, still write.

sed ea tametsī vōs parvī pendēbātis (Sall. Cat. 52. 9), but although you regarded those things as of small account.

NOTE 1.—Tametsī with the subjunctive is very rare.

NOTE 2.—A protasis with sī often has a concessive force: as,— ego, sī essent inimīcitiae mihi cum C. Caesare, tamen hōc tempore reī pūblicae cōnsulere …dēbērem (Prov. Cons. 47), as for me, even if I had private quarrels with Cæsar, it would still be my duty to serve the best interests of the state at this crisis.
d. Quamquam, although, introduces an admitted fact and takes the Indicative:—

omnibus — quamquam ruit ipse suīs clādibus — pestem dēnūntiat (Phil. xiv. 8), though he is breaking down under his disasters, still he threatens all with destruction.

NOTE.—Quamquam more commonly means and yet, introducing a new proposition in the indicative: as,— quamquam haec quidem iam tolerābilia vidēbantur, etsī, etc. (Mil. 76), and yet these, in truth, seemed now bearable, though, etc.
e. The poets and later writers frequently use quamvīs and quamquam like etsī, connecting them with the Indicative or the Subjunctive, according to the nature of the condition:—

quamquam movērētur (Liv. xxxvi. 34), although he was moved.

Polliō amat nostram, quamvīs est rūstica, mūsam (Ecl. iii. 84), Pollio loves my muse, though she is rustic.

quamvīs pervēnerās (Liv. ii. 40), though you had come.

f. Ut, as, with the Indicative, may be equivalent to a concession:

vērum ut errāre potuistī, sīc dēcipī tē nōn potuisse quis nōn videt (Fam. x. 20. 2), suppose you could have been mistaken, who does not see that you cannot have been deceived in this way ?

For cum concessive, see § 549; for quī concessive, see § 535. e. For concession expressed by the Hortatory Subjunctive (negative nē), see § 440.

SYNTAX: CLAUSES OF PROVISO

CLAUSES OF PROVISO

528. Dum, modo, dummodo, and tantum ut, introducing a Proviso, take the Subjunctive. The negative with these particles is nē:

ōderint dum metuant (Off. i. 97), let them hate, if only they fear.

valētūdō modo bona sit (Brut. 64), provided the health be good.

dummodo inter mē atque tē mūrus intersit (Cat. i. 10), provided only the wall (of the city) is between us.

tantum ut sciant (Att. xvi. 11. 1), provided only they know.

modo nē sit ex pecudum genere (Off. i. 105), provided [in pleasure] he be not of the herd of cattle.

id faciat saepe, dum nē lassus fīat (Cato R. R. v. 4), let him do this often, provided he does not get tired.

dummodo ea (sevēritās) nē variētur (Q. Fr. i. 1. 20), provided only it (strictness) be not allowed to swerve.

tantum nē noceat (Ov. M. ix. 21), only let it do no harm.

NOTE.—The Subjunctive with modo is hortatory or optative; that with dum and dummodo, a development from the use of the Subjunctive with dum in temporal clauses, § 553 (compare the colloquial so long as my health is good, I dont́ care).
a. The Hortatory Subjunctive without a particle sometimes expresses a proviso:—

sint Maecēnātēs, nōn deerunt Marōnēs (Mart. viii. 56. 5), so there be Mæcenases, Virgils will not be lacking.

b. The Subjunctive with ut (negative nē) is sometimes used to denote a proviso, usually with ita in the main clause:—

probāta condiciō est, sed ita ut ille praesidia dēdūceret (Att. vii. 14. 1), the terms were approved, but only on condition that he should withdraw the garrisons.

NOTE.—This is a development of the construction of Characteristic or Result. For a clause of Characteristic expressing Proviso, see § 535. d.

CLAUSES OF PURPOSE (FINAL CLAUSES)

529. The Subjunctive in the clause of Purpose is hortatory in origin, coming through a kind of indirect discourse construction (for which see § 592). Thus, mīsit lēgātōs quī dīcerent means he sent ambassadors who should say, i.e. who were directed to say ; in the direct orders the verb would be dīcite, which would become dīcant in the Indirect Discourse of narrative (§ 588) or dīcerent in the past (cf. hortatory subjunctive in past tenses, § 439. b). The Subjunctive with ut and nē is, in general, similar in origin. 530. A clause expressing purpose is called a Final Clause. 531. Final Clauses take the Subjunctive introduced by ut (utī), negative nē (ut nē), or by a Relative Pronoun or Adverb:— CLAUSES OF PURPOSE 1. Pure Clauses of Purpose, with ut (utī) or nē (ut nē), express the purpose of the main verb in the form of a modifying clause:—

ab arātrō abdūxērunt Cincinnātum, ut dictātor esset (Fin. ii. 12), they brought Cincinnatus from the plough that he might be dictator.

ut sint auxiliō suīs, subsistunt (B. C. i. 80), they halt in order to support (be an aid to) their own men.

nē mīlitēs oppidum inrumperent, portās obstruit (id. i. 27), he barricaded the gates, in order that the soldiers might not break into the town.

scālās parārī iubet, nē quam facultātem dīmittat (id. i. 28), he orders scaling-ladders to be got ready, in order not to let slip any opportunity.

ut nē sit impūne (Mil. 31), that it be not with impunity.

NOTE 1.—Sometimes the conjunction has a correlative (ideō, idcircō, eō cōnsiliō, etc.) in the main clause (cf. § 561. a):—

lēgum idcircō servī sumus, ut līberī sīmus (Clu 146), for this reason we are subject to the laws, that we may be free.

cōpiās trānsdūxit eō cōnsiliō, ut castellum expūgnāret (cf. B. G. ii. 9), he led the troops across with this design — to storm the fort.

NOTE 2.—Ut nōn sometimes occurs in clauses of purpose when nōn belongs to some particular word: as,— ut plūra nōn dīcam (Manil. 44), to avoid unnecessary talk.
2. Relative Clauses of Purpose are introduced by the relative pronoun quī or a relative adverb (ubi, unde, quō, etc.). The antecedent is expressed or implied in the main clause:—

mittitur L. Dēcidius Saxa quī locī nātūram perspiciat (B. C. i. 66), Lucius Decidius Saxa is sent to examine the ground (who should examine, etc.).

scrībēbat ōrātiōnēs quās aliī dīcerent (Brut. 206), he wrote speeches for other men to deliver.

eō exstīnctō fore unde discerem nēminem (Cat. M. 12), that when he was dead there would be nobody from whom (whence) I could learn.

huic nē ubi cōnsisteret quidem contrā tē locum relīquistī (Quinct. 73), you have left him no ground even to make a stand against you.

habēbam quō cōnfugerem (Fam. iv. 6. 2), I had [a retreat] whither I might flee.

NOTE.—In this construction quī ūt is (etc.), ubi ūt ibi, and so on (§ 537. 2).
a. The ablative quō ( ūt eō) is used as a conjunction in final clauses which contain a comparative:—

comprimere eōrum audāciam, quō facilius cēterōrum animī frangerentur (Fam. xv. 4. 10), to repress their audacity, that the spirit of the others might be broken more easily (by which the more easily).

lībertāte ūsus est, quō impūnius dicāx esset (Quinct. 11), he took advantage of liberty, that he might bluster with more impunity.

NOTE.—Occasionally quō introduces a final clause that does not contain a comparative: as,— L. Sulla exercitum, quō sibi fīdum faceret, lūxuriōsē habuerat (Sall. Cat. 11), Lucius Sulla had treated the army luxuriously, in order to make it devoted to him.

For quōminus ( ūt eō minus) after verbs of hindering, see § 558. b.

SYNTAX: CLAUSES OF PURPOSE 532. The principal clause, on which a final clause depends, is often to be supplied from the context:—

ac nē longum sit …iussimus (Cat. iii. 10), and, not to be tedious, we ordered, etc. [Strictly, in order not to be tedious, I say we ordered.]

sed ut ad Dion ysium redeāmus (Tusc. v. 63), but to return to Dionysius.

sed ut eōdem revertar, causa haec fuit timōris (Fam. vi. 7. 3), but, to return to the same point, this was the cause of fear.

satis incōnsīderātī fuit, nē dīcam audācis (Phil. xiii. 12), it was the act of one rash enough, not to say daring.

NOTE 1.—By a similar ellipsis the Subjunctive is used with nēdum (sometimes nē), still less, not to mention that: —

nēdum salvī esse possīmus (Clu. 95), much less could we be safe.

nēdum istī nōn statim conquīsītūrī sint aliquid sceleris et flāgitī (Leg. Agr. ii. 97), far more will they hunt up at once some sort of crime and scandal.

nēdum in marī et viā sit facile (Fam. xvi. 8), still less is it easy at sea and on a journey.

quippe secundae rēs sapientium animōs fatīgant; nē illī corruptīs mōribus victōriae temperārent (Sall. Cat. 11), for prosperity overmasters the soul even of the wise; much less did they with their corrupt morals put any check on victory.

NOTE 2.—With nēdum the verb itself is often omitted : as,— aptius hūmānitātī tuae quam tōta Peloponnēsus, nēdum Patrae (Fam. vii. 28. 1), fitter for your refinement than all Peloponnesus, to say nothing of Patræ.

For Substantive Clauses involving purpose, see §§ 563–566.

533. The Purpose of an action is expressed in Latin in various ways; but never (except in idiomatic expressions and rarely in poetry) by the simple Infinitive as in English (§ 460). The sentence, they came to seek peace, may be rendered —

(1) vēnērunt ut pācem peterent. [Final clause with ut (§ 531. 1).]

(2) vēnērunt quī pācem peterent. [Final clause with Relative (§ 531. 2).]

(3) [vēnērunt ad petendum pācem.] Not found with transitive verbs (§ 506, N. 2), but cf. ad pārendum senātuī. [Gerund with ad (§ 506).]

(4) vēnērunt ad petendam pācem. [Gerundive with ad (§ 506).]

(5) vēnērunt pācem petendī causā (grātiā). [Gen. of Gerund with causā (§ 504. b).]

(6) vēnērunt pācis petendae causā (grātiā). [Gen. of Gerundive with causā (§ 504. b).]

(7) vēnērunt pācem petītūrī. [Future participle (§ 499. 2); in later writers.]

(8) vēnērunt pācem petītum. [Supine in -um (§ 509).]

These forms are not used indifferently, but — a. The usual way of expressing purpose is by ut (negative nē), unless the purpose is closely connected with some one word, in which case a relative is more common:— CLAUSES OF CHARACTERISTIC

lēgatōs ad Dumnorīgem mittunt, ut eō dēprecātōre ā Sēquanīs impetrārent (B. G. i. 9), they send envoys to Dumnorix, in order through his intercession to obtain (this favor) from the Sequani.

mīlitēs mīsit ut eōs quī fūgerant persequerentur (id. v. 10), he sent the soldiers to follow up those who had fled.

Cūriō praemittit equitēs quī prīmum impetum sustineant (B. C. ii. 26), Curio sends forward cavalry to withstand the first attack.

b. The Gerund and Gerundive constructions of purpose are usually limited to short expressions, where the literal translation, though not the English idiom, is nevertheless not harsh or strange. c. The Supine is used to express purpose only with verbs of motion, and in a few idiomatic expressions (§ 509). d. The Future Participle used to express purpose is a late construction of inferior authority (§ 499. 2).

For the poetical Infinitive of Purpose, see § 460. c. For the Present Participle in a sense approaching that of purpose, see § 490. 3.

CLAUSES OF CHARACTERISTIC

534. The relative clause of Characteristic with the Subjunctive is a development peculiar to Latin. A relative clause in the Indicative merely states something as a fact which is true of the antecedent; a characteristic clause (in the Subjunctive) defines the antecedent as a person or thing of such a character that the statement made is true of him or it and of all others belonging to the same class. Thus,— nōn potest exercitum is continēre imperātor quī sē ipse nōn continet (indicative) means simply, that commander who does not (as a fact) restrain himself cannot restrain his army; whereas nōn potest exercitum is continēre imperātor quī sē ipse nōn contineat (subjunctive) would mean, that commander who is not such a man as to restrain himself, etc., that is, who is not characterized by self-restraint. This construction has its origin in the potential use of the subjunctive (§ 445) Thus, in the example just given, quī sē ipse nōn contineat would mean literally, who would not restrain himself (in any supposable case), and this potential idea passes over easily into that of general quality or characteristic. The characterizing force is most easily felt when the antecedent is indefinite or general. But this usage is extended in Latin to cases which differ but slightly from statements of fact, as it some of the examples below. The use of the Subjunctive to express Result comes from its use in Clauses of Characteristic. Thus, nōn sum ita hebes ut haec dīcam means literally, I am not dull in the manner (degree) in which I should say this, hence, I am not so dull as to say this. Since, then, the characteristic often appears in the form of a supposed result, the construction readily passes over into Pure Result, with no idea of characteristic; as,— tantus in cūriā clāmor factus est ut populus concurreret (Verr. ii. 47), such an outcry was made in the senate-house that the people hurried together. 535. A Relative Clause with the Subjunctive is often used to indicate a characteristic of the antecedent, especially where the antecedent is otherwise undefined:— SYNTAX: CLAUSES OF CHARACTERISTIC

neque enim tū is es quī nesciās (Fam. v. 12. 6), for you are not such a one as not to know. [Here is is equivalent to such, and is defined only by the relative clause that follows.]

multa dīcunt quae vix intellegam (Fin. iv. 2), they say many things which (such as) I hardly understand.

pācī quae nihil habitūra sit īnsidiārum semper est cōnsulendum (Off. i. 35), we must always aim at a peace which shall have no plots.

a. A Relative Clause of Characteristic is used after general expressions of existence or non-existence, including questions which imply a negative. So especially with sunt quī, there are [some] who; quis est quī, who is there who? —

sunt quī discessum animī ā corpore putent esse mortem (Tusc. i. 18), there are some who think that the departure of soul from body constitutes death.

erant quī cēnsērent (B. C. ii. 30), there were some who were of the opinion, etc.

erant quī Helvidium miserārentur (Tac. Ann. xvi. 29), there were some who pitied Helvidius. [Cf. est cum (N. 3, below).]

quis est quī id nōn maximīs efferat laudibus (Lael. 24), who is there that does not extol it with the highest praise?

nihil videō quod timeam (Fam. ix. 16. 3), I see nothing to fear.

nihil est quod adventum nostrum extimēscās (Fam. ix. 26. 4), there is no reason why you should dread my coming.

unde agger comportārī posset nihil erat reliquum (B. C. ii. 15), there was nothing left from which an embankment could be got together.

NOTE 1.—After general negatives like nēmō est quī, the Subjunctive is regular; after general affirmatives like sunt quī, it is the prevailing construction, but the Indicative sometimes occurs; after multī (nōn nūllī, quīdam) sunt quī, and similar expressions in which the antecedent is partially defined, the choice of mood depends on the shade of meaning which the writer wishes to express:—

sunt bēstiae quaedam in quibus inest aliquid simile virtūtis (Fin. v. 38), there are certain animals in which there is something like virtue.

But,— inventī multī sunt quī vītam prōfundere prō patriā parātī essent (Off. i. 84), many were found of such a character as to be ready to give their lives for their country.

NOTE 2.—Characteristic clauses with sunt quī etc. are sometimes called Relative Clauses with an Indefinite Antecedent, but are to be carefully distinguished from the Indefinite Relative in protasis (§ 520).

NOTE 3.—The phrases est cum, fuit cum, etc. are used like est quī, sunt quī: as,— ac fuit cum mihi quoque initium requiēscendī fore iūstum arbitrārer (De Or. i. 1), and there was a time when I thought a beginning of rest would be justifiable on my part.
b. A Relative Clause of Characteristic may follow ūnus and sōlus:

nīl admīrārī prope rēs est ūna sōlaque quae possit facere et servāre beātum (Hor. Ep. i. 6. 1), to wonder at nothing is almost the sole and only thing that can make and keep one happy.

sōlus es cûius in victōriā ceciderit nēmō nisi armātus (Deiot. 34), you are the only man in whose victory no one has fallen unless armed.

CLAUSES OF CHARACTERISTIC c. A clause of Result or Characteristic with quam ut, quam quī (rarely with quam alone), may be used after comparatives:—

Canachī sīgna rigidiōra sunt quam ut imitentur vēritātem (Brut. 70), the statues of Canachus are too stiff to represent nature (stiffer than that they should).

mâiōrēs arborēs caedēbant quam quās ferre mīles posset (Liv. xxxiii. 5), they cut trees too large for a soldier to carry (larger than what a soldier could carry).

NOTE 3.—This construction corresponds in sense to the English too …to.
d. A relative clause of characteristic may express restriction or proviso (cf. § 528. b):—

quod sciam, so far as I know (lit. as to what I know).

Catōnis ōrātiōnēs, quās quidem invēnerim (Brut. 65), the speeches of Cato, at least such as I have discovered.

servus est nēmō, quī modo tolerābilī condiciōne sit servitūtis (Cat. iv. 16), there is not a slave, at least in any tolerable condition of slavery.

e. A Relative Clause of Characteristic may express cause or concession: —

peccāsse mihi videor quī ā tē discesserim (Fam. xvi. 1), I seem to myself to have done wrong because I have left you. [Causal.]

virum simplicem quī nōs nihil cēlet (Or. 230), O guileless man, who hides nothing from us! [Causal.]

egomet quī sērō Graecās litterās attigissem, tamen complūrēs Athēnīs diēs sum commorātus (De Or. i. 82), I myself, though I began Greek literature late, yet, etc. (lit. [a man] who, etc.). [Concessive.]

NOTE 1.—In this use the relative is equivalent to cum is etc. It is often preceded by ut, utpote, or quippe:—

nec cōnsul, ut quī id ipsum quaesīsset, moram certāminī fēcit (Liv. xlii. 7), nor did the consul delay the fight, since he had sought that very thing (as [being one] who had sought, etc.).

Lūcius, frāter êius, utpote quī peregrē dēpūgnārit, familiam dūcit (Phil. v. 30), Lucius, his brother, leads his household, inasmuch as he is a man who has fought it out abroad.

convīvia cum patre nōn inībat, quippe qui nē in oppidum quidem nisi perrārō venīret (Rosc. Am. 52), he did not go to dinner parties with his father, since he did not even come to town except very rarely.

NOTE 2.—The Relative of Cause or Concession is merely a variety of the Characteristic construction. The quality expressed by the Subjunctive is connected with the action of the main verb either as cause on account of which (SINCE) or as hindrance in spite of which (ALTHOUGH).
f. Dīgnus, indīgnus, aptus, idōneus take a subjunctive clause with a relative (rarely ut). The negative is nōn:—

dīgna in quibus ēlabōrārent (Tusc. i. 1), (things) worth spending their toil on (worthy on which they should, etc.).

dīgna rēs est ubi tū nervōs intendās tuōs (Ter. Eun. 312), the affair is worthy of your stretching your sinews (worthy wherein you should, etc.).

SYNTAX: CLAUSES OF RESULT idōneus quī impetret (Manil. 57), fit to obtain.

indīgnī ut redimerēmur (Liv. xxii. 59. 17), unworthy to be ransomed.

NOTE 1.—This construction is sometimes explained as a relative clause of purpose, but it is more closely related to characteristic.

NOTE 2.—With dīgnus etc., the poets often use the Infinitive:—

fōns rīvō dare nōmen idōneus (Hor. Ep. i. 16. 12), a source fit to give a name to a stream.

aetās mollis et apta rogī (Ov. A. A. i. 10), a time of life soft and easy to be guided.

vīvere dīgnus erās (Ov. M. x. 633), you were worthy to live.

CLAUSES OF RESULT (CONSECUTIVE CLAUSES)

536. The Subjunctive in Consecutive Clauses is a development of the use of that mood in Clauses of Characteristic (as explained in § 534). 537. Clauses of Result take the Subjunctive introduced by ut, so that (negative, ut nōn), or by a relative pronoun or relative adverb. 1. Pure Clauses of Result, with ut or ut nōn, express the result of the main verb in the form of a modifying clause:—

tanta vīs probitātis est ut eam in hoste dīligāmus (Lael. 29), so great is the power of goodness that we love it even in an enemy.

pūgnātur ācriter ad novissimum agmen, adeō ut paene terga convertant (B. C. i. 80), there is sharp fighting in the rear, so (to such a degree) that they almost take flight.

multa rūmor adfingēbat, ut paene bellum cōnfectum vidērētur (id. i. 53), rumor added many false reports, so that the war seemed almost ended.

2. Relative Clauses of Result are introduced by the relative pronoun quī or a relative adverb (ubi, unde, quō, etc.). The antecedent is expressed or implied in the main clause. The Relative in this construction is equivalent to ut with the corresponding demonstrative:— quī ūt is (etc.), ubi ūt ibi, and so on:

nam est innocentia affectiō tālis animī quae noceat nēminī (Tusc. iii. 16), for innocence is such a quality of mind as to do harm to no one.

sunt aliae causae quae plānē efficiant (Top. 59), there are other causes such as to bring to pass.

nūlla est celeritās quae possit cum animī celeritāte contendere (Tusc. i. 43), there is no swiftness which can compare with the swiftness of the mind.

quis nāvigāvit quī nōn sē mortis perīculō committeret (Manil. 31), who went to sea who did not incur the peril of death ?

NOTE 1.—Since the relative clause of Result is a development from the relative clause of Characteristic (§ 534), no sharp line can be drawn between the two constructions. In doubtful cases, it is better to attempt no distinction or to describe the clause as one of Characteristic.

NOTE 2.—Clauses of Result are often introduced by such correlative words as tam, tālis, tantus, ita, sīc, adeō, ūsque eō, which belong to the main clause.
CLAUSES OF RESULT a. A Negative Result is introduced by ut nōn, ut nēmō, quī nōn, etc., not by nē:—

multīs gravibusque volneribus cōnfectus ut iam sē sustinēre nōn posset (B. G. ii. 25), used up with many severe wounds so that he could no longer stand.

tantā vī in Pompêī equitēs impetum fēcērunt ut eōrum nēmō cōnsisteret (B. C. iii. 93), they attacked Pompeyś cavalry with such vigor that not one of them stood his ground.

nēmō est tam senex quī sē annum nōn putet posse vīvere (Cat. M. 24), nobody is so old as not to think that he can live a year.

NOTE.—When the result implies an effect intended (not a simple purpose), ut nē or nē is sometimes used as being less positive than ut nōn:— [librum] ita corrigās nē mihi noceat (Caecina, Fam. vi. 7. 6), correct the book so that it may not hurt me.
b. Frequently a clause of result or characteristic is used in a restrictive sense, and so amounts to a Proviso (cf. § 535. d):—

hōc ita est ūtile ut nē plānē inlūdāmur ab accūsātōribus (Rosc. Am. 55), this is so far useful that we are not utterly mocked by the accusers (i.e. useful only on this condition, that, etc.).

nihil autem est molestum quod nōn dēsīderēs (Cat. M. 47), but nothing is troublesome which ( p̄rovided that) you do not miss.

c. The clause of result is sometimes expressed in English by the Infinitive with TO or SO AS TO or an equivalent:—

tam longē aberam ut nōn vidērem, I was too far away to see (so far that I did not see ; cf. § 535. c).

NOTE.—Result is never expressed by the Infinitive in Latin except by the poets in a few passages (§ 461. a).
538. The constructions of Purpose and Result are precisely alike in the affirmative (except sometimes in tense sequence, § 485. c); but, in the negative, Purpose takes nē, Result ut nōn etc.:—

cūstōdītus est nē effugeret, he was guarded in order that he MIGHT not escape.

cūstōdītus est ut nōn effugeret, he was guarded so that he DID not escape.

So in negative Purpose clauses nē quis, nē quid, nē ūllus, nē quō, nē quandō, nēcubi, etc. are almost always used ; in negative Result clauses, ut nēmō, ut nihil, ut nūllus, etc.:—

(1) cernere nē quis eōs, neu quis contingere posset (Aen. i. 413), that no one might see them, no one touch them. [Purpose.]

nē quandō līberīs prōscrīptōrum bona patria reddantur (Rosc. Am. 145), lest at some time the patrimony of the proscribed should be restored to their children.

ipse nē quō inciderem, revertī Formiās (Att. viii. 3. 7), that I might not come upon him anywhere, I returned to Formiæ.

SYNTAX: CAUSAL CLAUSES

dispositīs explōrātōribus nēcubi Rōmānī cōpiās trādūcerent (B. G. vii. 35), having stationed scouts here and there in order that the Romans might not lead their troops across anywhere.

(2) multī ita sunt imbēcillī senēs ut nūllum officī mūnus exsequī possint (Cat. M. 35), many old men are so feeble that they cannot perform any duty to society. [Result.]

quī summum bonum sīc īnstituit ut nihil habeat cum virtūte coniūnctum (Off. i. 5), who has so settled the highest good that it has nothing in common with virtue.

For clauses of Result or Characteristic with quīn, see § 559. For Substantive Clauses of Result, see §§ 567–571.

CAUSAL CLAUSES

539. Causal Clauses take either the Indicative or the Subjunctive, according to their construction; the idea of cause being contained, not in the mood itself, but in the form of the argument (by implication), in an antecedent of causal meaning (like proptereā), or in the connecting particles. Quod is in origin the relative pronoun (stem quo-) used adverbially in the accusative neuter (cf. § 214. d) and gradually sinking to the position of a colorless relative conjunction (cf. English that and see § 222). Its use as a causal particle is an early special development. Quia is perhaps an accusative plural neuter of the relative stem qui-, and seems to have developed its causal sense more distinctly than quod, and at an earlier period. It is used (very rarely) as an interrogative, why? (so in classical Latin with nam only), and may, like quandō, have developed from an interrogative to a relative particle. Quoniam (for quom iam) is also of relative origin (quom being a case-form of the pronominal stem quo-). It occurs in old Latin in the sense of when (cf. quom, cum), from which the causal meaning is derived (cf. cum causal). The Subjunctive with quod and quia depends on the principle of Informal Indirect Discourse (§ 592). Quandō is probably the interrogative quam (how ?) compounded with a form of the pronominal stem do- (cf. dum, dō-nec). It originally denoted time (first interrogatively, then as a relative), and thus came to signify cause. Unlike quod and quia, it is not used to state a reason in informal indirect discourse and therefore is never followed by the Subjunctive. 540. The Causal Particles quod and quia take the Indicative, when the reason is given on the authority of the writer or speaker; the Subjunctive, when the reason is given on the authority of another: — 1. Indicative:—

cum tibi agam grātiās quod mē vīvere coēgistī (Att. iii. 3), when I may thank you that you have forced me to live.

cūr igitur pācem nōlō ? quia turpis est (Phil. vii. 9), why then do I not wish for peace ? Because it is disgraceful.

ita fit ut adsint proptereā quod officium sequuntur, taceant autem quia perīculum vītant (Rosc. Am. 1), so it happens that they attend because they follow duty, but are silent because they seek to avoid danger.

CAUSAL CLAUSES 2. Subjunctive:—

mihi grātulābāre quod audīssēs mē meam prīstinam dīgnitātem obtinēre (Fam. iv. 14. 1), you congratulated me because [as you said] you had heard that I had regained my former dignity.

noctū ambulābat Themistoclēs quod somnum capere nōn posset (Tusc. iv. 44), Themistocles used to walk about at night because [as he said] he could not sleep.

mea māter īrāta est quia nōn redierim (Pl. Cist. 101), my mother is angry because I didnt́ return.

NOTE 1.—Quod introduces either a fact or a statement, and accordingly takes either the Indicative or the Subjunctive. Quia regularly introduces a fact; hence it rarely takes the Subjunctive. Quoniam, inasmuch as, since, when now, now that, has reference to motives, excuses, justifications, and the like and takes the Indicative.

NOTE 2.—Under this head what the speaker himself thought under other circumstances may have the Subjunctive (§ 592. 3. N.): as,— ego laeta vīsa sum quia soror vēnisset (Pl. Mil. 387), I seemed (in my dream) glad because my sister had come.

So with quod even a verb of saying may be in the Subjunctive: as,— rediit quod sē oblītum nesciō quid dīceret (Off. i. 40), he returned because he said he had forgotten something.

NOTE 3.—Nōn quod, nōn quia, nōn quō, introducing a reason expressly to deny it, take the Subjunctive; but the Indicative sometimes occurs when the statement is in itself true, though not the true reason. In the negative, nōn quīn (with the Subjunctive) may be used in nearly the same sense as nōn quod nōn. After a comparative, quam quō or quam quod is used:—

pugilēs ingemēscunt, nōn quod doleant, sed quia profundendā vōce omne corpus intenditur (Tusc. ii. 56), boxers groan, not because they are in pain, but because by giving vent to the voice the whole body is put in a state of tension.

nōn quia rēctior ad Alpīs via esset, sed crēdēns (Liv. xxi. 31. 2), not because the route to the Alps was more direct, but believing, etc.

nōn quīn parī virtūte et voluntāte aliī fuerint, sed tantam causam nōn habuērunt (Phil. vii. 6), not that there were not others of equal courage and good-will, but they had not so strong a reason.

haec amōre magis impulsus scrībenda ad tē putāvī, quam quō tē arbitrārer monitīs et praeceptīs egēre (Fam. x. 3. 4), this I thought I ought to write to you, rather from the impulse of (prompted by) affection than because I thought that you needed advice and suggestion.

a. Quoniam and quandō, since, introduce a reason given on the authority of the writer or speaker, and take the Indicative:—

locus est ā mē, quoniam ita Murēna voluit, retrāctandus (Mur. 54), I must review the point, since Murena has so wished.

quandō ita vīs. dī bene vortant (Pl. Trin. 573), since you so wish, may the gods bless the undertaking.

quandō ad mâiōra nātī sumus (Fin. v. 21), since we are born for greater things.

NOTE.—The Subjunctive with quoniam is unclassical. Quandō, since, in the causal sense, is mostly archaic or late. Quandō, when, is used as interrogative, relative, and indefinite: as,— quandō ? hodiē, when? to-day; sī quandō, if ever.
SYNTAX: TEMPORAL CLAUSES b. Causal clauses introduced by quod, quia, quoniam, and quandō take the Subjunctive in Indirect Discourse, like any other dependent clause (see § 580). c. A Relative, when used to express cause, regularly takes the Subjunctive (see § 535. e). d. Cum causal takes the Subjunctive (see § 549).

For Substantive Clauses with quod, see § 572.

TEMPORAL CLAUSES

541. Temporal Clauses are introduced by particles which are almost all of relative origin. They are construed like other relative clauses, except where they have developed into special idiomatic constructions.²³²

For list of Temporal Particles, see p. 138.

Temporal Clauses may be classified as follows:—

I. Conditional Relative Clauses: ubi, ut, cum, quandō, in Protasis (§ 542).

II. Clauses with postquam, ubi, etc. (Indicative), (§ 543).

III. Clauses with cum

1. Cum temporal (§§ 545–548) 2. Cum causal or concessive (§ 549).

IV. Clauses with antequam and priusquam (Indicative or Subjunctive) (§ 551).

V. Clauses with dum, dōnec, and quoad (Indicative or Subjunctive) (§§ 552–556).

Conditional Relative Clauses

542. The particles ubi, ut, cum, quandō, either alone or compounded with -cumque, may be used as Indefinite Relatives (in the sense of whenever), and have the constructions of Protasis (cf. § 514):—

cum id malum negās esse, capior (Tusc. ii. 29), whenever you (the individual disputant) deny it to be an evil, I am misled. [Present general condition.]

quod profectō cum mē nūlla vīs cōgeret, facere nōn audērem (Phil. v. 51), which I would surely not venture to do, as long as no force compelled me. [Present, contrary to fact: cf. § 517.]

cum videās eōs dolōre nōn frangī, dēbeās exīstimāre, etc. (Tusc. ii. 66), when you see that those are not broken by pain, you ought to infer, etc. [Present general condition: cf. § 518. a.]

cum rosam vīderat, tum incipere vēr arbitrābātur (Verr. v. 27), whenever he saw a rose he thought spring had begun. [Past general condition: cf. § 518. b.]

id ubi dīxisset, hastam in fīnīs eōrum ēmittēbat (Liv. i. 32. 13), when he had said this, he would cast the spear into their territories. [Past General Condition, repeated action: see § 518. c.]

POSTQUAM, UBI, ETC.

Temporal Clauses with postquam, ubi, etc.

543. The particles postquam (posteāquam), ubi, ut (ut prīmum, ut semel), simul atque (simul ac, or simul alone), take the Indicative (usually in the perfect or the historical present):—

mīlitēs postquam victōriam adeptī sunt, nihil reliquī victīs fēcēre (Sall. Cat. 11), when the soldiers had won the victory, they left nothing to the vanquished.

posteāquam forum attigistī, nihil fēcistī nisi, etc. (Fam. xv. 16. 3), since you came to the forum, you have done nothing except, etc.

ubi omnīs idem sentīre intellēxit, posterum diem pūgnae cōnstituit (B. G. iii. 23), when he understood that all agreed (thought the same thing), he appointed the next day for the battle.

Catilīna, ubi eōs convēnisse videt, sēcēdit (Sall. Cat. 20), when Catiline sees that they have come together, he retires.

Pompêius ut equitātum suum pulsum vīdit, aciē excessit (B. C. iii. 94), when Pompey saw his cavalry beaten, he left the field.

ut semel ē Pīraeeō ēloquentia ēvecta est (Brut. 51), as soon as eloquence had set sail from the Pirœus.

nostrī simul in āridō cōnstitērunt, in hostīs impetum fēcērunt (B. G. iv. 26), our men, as soon as they had taken a position on dry ground, made an attack on the enemy.

simul atque intrōductus est, rem cōnfēcit (Clu. 40), as soon as he was brought in, he did the job.

a. These particles less commonly take the Imperfect or Pluperfect Indicative. The Imperfect denotes a past state of things ; the Pluperfect, an action completed in past time:—

postquam strūctī utrimque stābant, ducēs in medium prōcēdunt (Liv. i 23), when they stood in array on both sides, the generals advance into the midst.

P. Āfricānus posteāquam bis cōnsul et cēnsor fuerat (Caecil. 69), when Africanus had been (i.e. had the dignity of having been) twice consul and censor.

postquam id difficilius vīsum est, neque facultās perficiendī dabātur, ad Pompêium trānsiērunt (B. C. iii. 60), when this seemed too hard, and no means of effecting it were given, they passed over to Pompey.

post diem quīntum quam iterum barbarī male pūgnāverant [ v̄ictī sunt], lēgātī ā Bocchō veniunt (Iug. 102), the fifth day after the barbarians were beaten the second time, envoys come from Bocchus.

haec iuventūtem, ubi familiārēs opēs dēfēcerant, ad facinora incendēbant (Sall. Cat. 13), when their inherited resources had given out, etc.

ubi perīcula virtūte prōpulerant (id. 6), when they had dispelled the dangers by their valor.

For the use of ubi, ut, either alone or compounded with -cumque as Indefinite Relatives, see § 542.

SYNTAX: TEMPORAL CLAUSES

USES OF CUM

544. The conjunction cum (quom) is a case-form of the relative pronoun quī. It inherits from quī its subordinating force, and in general shares its constructions. But it was early specialized to a temporal meaning (cf. tum, dum), and its range of usage was therefore less wide than that of quī; it could not, for example, introduce clauses of purpose or of result. With the Indicative, besides the simple expression of definite time (corresponding to simple relative clauses with the Indicative), it has a few special uses,— conditional, explicative, cum inversum — all easily derived from the temporal use. With the Subjunctive, cum had a development parallel to that of the quī-clause of Characteristic,— a development not less extensive and equally peculiar to Latin. From defining the time the cum-clause passed over to the description of the time by means of its attendant circumstances of cause or concession (cf. since, while). In particular, cum with the Subjunctive was used in narrative (hence the past tenses, Imperfect and Pluperfect) as a descriptive clause of time. As, however, the present participle in Latin is restricted in its use and the perfect active participle is almost wholly lacking, the historical or narrative cum-clause came into extensive use to supply the deficiency. In classical writers the narrative cum-clause (with the Subjunctive) has pushed back the defining clause (with the Imperfect or Pluperfect Indicative) into comparative infrequency, and is itself freely used where the descriptive or characterizing force is scarcely perceptible (cf. the quī-clause of Characteristic, § 534).

Cum Temporal

545. A temporal clause with cum, when, and some past tense of the Indicative dates or defines the time at which the action of the main verb occurred:—

eō [lituō] regiōnēs dīrēxit tum cum urbem condidit (Div. i. 30), he traced with it the quarters [of the sky] at the time he founded the city.

cum occīditur Sex. Rōscius, ibīdem fuērunt servī (Rosc. Am. 120), when Roscius was slain, the slaves were on the spot. [occīditur is historical present.]

quem quidem cum ex urbe pellēbam, hōc prōvidēbam animō (Cat. iii. 16), when I was trying to force him (conative imperfect) from the city, I looked forward to this.

fulgentīs gladiōs hostium vidēbant Deciī cum in aciem eōrum inruēbant (Tusc. ii. 59), the Decii saw the flashing swords of the enemy when they rushed upon their line.

tum cum in Asiā rēs māgnās permultī āmīserant (Manil. 19), at that time, when many had lost great fortunes in Asia.

NOTE 1.—This is the regular use with all tenses in early Latin, and at all times with the Perfect and the Historical Present (as with postquam etc.). With the Imperfect and Pluperfect the Indicative use is (in classical Latin) much less common than the Subjunctive use defined below (§ 546).

NOTE 2.—This construction must not be confused with that of cum, whenever, in General Conditions (§ 542).
CUM TEMPORAL a. When the time of the main clause and that of the temporal clause are absolutely identical, cum takes the Indicative in the same tense as that of the main verb:—

maximā sum laetitiā adfectus cum audīvī cōnsulem tē factum esse (Fam. xv. 7), I was very much pleased when I heard that you had been elected consul.

546. A temporal clause with cum and the Imperfect or Pluperfect Subjunctive describes the circumstances that accompanied or preceded the action of the main verb:—

cum essem ōtiōsus in Tusculānō, accēpī tuās litterās (Fam. ix. 18. 1), when I was taking my ease in my house at Tusculum, I received your letter.

cum servīlī bellō premerētur (Manil. 30), when she (Italy) was under the load of the Servile War.

cum id nūntiātum esset, mātūrat (B. G. i. 7), when this had been reported, he made (makes) haste.

cum ad Cybistra quīnque diēs essem morātus, rēgem Ariobarzānem īnsidiīs līberāvī (Fam. xv. 4. 6), after remaining at Cybistra for five days, I freed King Ariobarzanes from plots.

is cum ad mē Lāodicēam vēnisset mēcumque ego eum vellem, repente percussus est atrōcissimīs litterīs (id. ix. 25. 3), when he had come to me at Laodicea and I wished him to remain with me, he was suddenly, etc.

NOTE 1.—This construction is very common in narrative, and cum in this use is often called narrative cum.

NOTE 2.—Cum with the Imperfect or Pluperfect Indicative does not (like cum with the Imperfect or Pluperfect Subjunctive) describe the time by its circumstances; it defines the time of the main verb by denoting a coëxistent state of things (Imperfect Indicative) or a result attained when the action of the main verb took place (Pluperfect). Thus the construction is precisely that of postquam etc. (§ 543. a).

NOTE 3.—The distinction between the uses defined in §§ 545, 546, may be illustrated by the following examples: (1) He had a fever when he was in Spain (Shakspere). Here the when-clause defines the time when Cæsar had the fever,— namely, in the year of his Spanish campaign (B.C. 49). In Latin we should use cum with the Imperfect Indicative. (2) Columbus discovered America when he was seeking a new route to India; here the when-clause does not define or date the time of the discovery; it merely describes the circumstances under which America was discovered,— namely, in the course of a voyage undertaken for another purpose. In Latin we should use the Imperfect Subjunctive.

NOTE 4.—The distinction explained in Note 3 is unknown to early Latin. In Plautus quom always has the Indicative unless the Subjunctive is required for some other reason.
a. When the principal action is expressed in the form of a temporal clause with cum, and the definition of the time becomes the main clause, cum takes the Indicative. Here the logical relations of the two clauses are inverted ; hence cum is in this use called cum inversum:— SYNTAX: TEMPORAL CLAUSES

diēs nōndum decem intercesserant, cum ille alter fīlius īnfāns necātur (Clu. 28), ten days had not yet passed, when the other infant son was killed. [Instead of when ten days had not yet passed, etc.]

iamque lūx appārēbat cum prōcēdit ad mīlitēs (Q. C. vii. 8. 3), and day was already dawning when he appears before the soldiers.

hōc facere noctū apparābant, cum mātrēs familiae repente in pūblicum prōcurrērunt (B. G. vii. 26), they were preparing to do this by night, when the women suddenly ran out into the streets.

547. Present time with cum temporal is denoted by the Present Indicative; future time, by the Future or Future Perfect Indicative:—

incidunt tempora, cum ea, quae maximē videntur dīgna esse iūstō homine, fīunt contrāria (Off. i. 31), times occur when those things which seem especially worthy of the upright man, become the opposite.

nōn dubitābō dare operam ut tē videam, cum id satis commodē facere poterō (Fam. xiii. 1), I shall not hesitate to take pains to see you, when I can do it conveniently.

longum illud tempus cum nōn erō (Att. xii. 18), that long time when I shall be no more.

cum vēneris, cōgnōscēs (Fam. v. 7. 3), when you come (shall have come), you will find out.

548. Cum, whenever, takes the construction of a relative clause in a general condition (see § 542). For present time, either the Present or the Perfect Indicative is used; for past time, regularly the Pluperfect Indicative.

For est cum etc., see § 535. a. N. 3.

Cum Causal or Concessive

549. Cum causal or concessive takes the Subjunctive:—

id difficile nōn est, cum tantum equitātū valeāmus (B. C. iii. 86), this is not difficult since we are so strong in cavalry. [Causal.]

cum sōlitūdō īnsidiārum et metūs plēna sit, ratiō ipsa monet amīcitiās comparāre (Fin. i. 66), since solitude is full of treachery and fear, reason itself prompts us to contract friendships. [Causal.]

cum prīmī ōrdinēs concidissent, tamen ācerrimē reliquī resistēbant (B. G. vii. 62), though the first ranks had fallen, still the others resisted vigorously. [Concessive.]

brevī spatiō legiōnēs numerō hominum explēverat, cum initiō nōn amplius duōbus mīlibus habuisset (Sall. Cat. 56), in a short time he had filled out the legions with their complement of men, though at the start he had not had more than two thousand. [Concessive.]

ANTEQUAM AND PRIUSQUAM Cum causal may usually be translated by since; cum concessive by although or while; either, occasionally, by when.
NOTE 1.—Cum in these uses is often emphasized by ut, utpote, quippe, praesertim; as,— nec reprehendō: quippe cum ipse istam reprehēnsiōnem nōn fūgerim
(Att. x. 3A), I find no fault; since I myself did not escape that blame.
NOTE 2.—These causal and concessive uses of cum are of relative origin and are parallel to quī causal and concessive (§ 535. e). The attendant circumstances are regarded as the cause of the action, or as tending to hinder it.

NOTE 3.—In early Latin cum (quom) causal and concessive usually takes the Indicative: as,— quom tua r=es distrahitur, utinam videam (Pl. Trin. 617), since your property is being torn in pieces, O that I may see, etc.

a. Cum with the Indicative frequently introduces an explanatory statement, and is sometimes equivalent to quod, on the ground that: —

cum tacent, clāmant (Cat. i. 21), when they are silent, they cry out (i.e. their silence is an emphatic expression of their sentiments).

grātulor tibi cum tantum valēs apud Dolābellam (Fam. ix. 14. 3), I congratulate you that you are so strong with Dolabella.

NOTE.—This is merely a special use of cum temporal expressing coincident time (§ 545. a).

b. Cum …tum, signifying both …and, usually takes the Indicative; but when cum approaches the sense of while or though, the Subjunctive is used (§ 549):—

cum multa nōn probō, tum illud in prīmīs (Fin. i. 18), while there are many things I do not approve, there is this in chief. [Indicative.]

cum difficile est, tum nē aequum quidem (Lael. 26), not only is it difficult but even unjust.

cum rēs tōta ficta sit puerīliter, tum nē efficit quidem quod vult (Fin. i. 19), while the whole thing is childishly got up, he does not even make his point (accomplish what he wishes). [Subjunctive; approaching cum causal.]

Antequam and Priusquam

550. Antequam and priusquam, before, introduce Clauses of Time which resemble those with cum temporal in their constructions. Priusquam consists of two parts (often written separately and sometimes separated by other words), the comparative adverb prius, sooner (before), which really modifies the main verb, and the relative particle quam, than, which introduces the subordinate clause. The latter is therefore a relative clause, and takes the Indicative or the Subjunctive (like other relative clauses) according to the sense intended. The Subjunctive with priusquam is related to that of purpose (§ 529) and is sometimes called the Anticipatory or Prospective Subjunctive. Antequam, like priusquam, consists of two words, the first of which is the adverb ante, before, modifying the main verb. Its constructions are the same as those of priusquam, but the latter is commoner in classic prose.

551. Antequam and priusquam take sometimes the Indicative sometimes the Subjunctive. SYNTAX: TEMPORAL CLAUSES
a. With antequam or priusquam the Perfect Indicative states a fact in past time:—

antequam tuās lēgī litterās, hominem īre cupiēbam (Att. ii. 7. 2), before I read your letter, I wished the man to go.

neque ante dīmīsit eum quam fidem dedit adulēscēns (Liv. xxxix. 10), and she did not let the young man go till he pledged his faith.

neque prius fugere dēstitērunt quam ad flūmen pervēnērunt (B. G. i. 53), nor did they stop running until they reached the river.

NOTE.—The Perfect Indicative in this construction is regular when the main clause is negative and the main verb is in an historical tense. The Imperfect Indicative is rare; the Pluperfect Indicative, very rare. The Perfect Subjunctive is rare and ante-classical, except in Indirect Discourse.

b. With antequam or priusquam the Imperfect Subjunctive is common when the subordinate verb implies purpose or expectancy in past time, or when the action that it denotes did not take place:—

ante pūgnārī coeptum est quam satis īnstruerētur aciēs (Liv. xxii. 4. 7), the fight was begun before the line could be properly formed.

priusquam tū suum sibi vēnderēs, ipse possēdit (Phil. ii. 96), before you could sell him his own property, he took possession of it himself.

priusquam tēlum abicī posset aut nostrī propius accēderent, omnis Vārī aciēs terga vertit (B. C. ii. 34), before a weapon could be thrown or our men approached nearer, the whole line about Varus took flight.

NOTE 1.—The Pluperfect Subjunctive is rare, except in Indirect Discourse by sequence of tenses for the Future Perfect Indicative (§ 484. c): as,— antequam homin=es nef=ari=i d=e me=o advent=u aud=ire potuissent, in Macedoniam perr=ex=i (Planc. 98), before those evil men could learn of my coming, I arrived in Macedonia.

NOTE 2.—After an historical present the Present Subjunctive is used instead of the Imperfect: as,— neque ab e=o prius Domiti=an=i m=ilit=es disc=edunt quam in c=onspectum Caesaris dēdūcātur (B. C. i. 22), and the soldiers of Domitius did (do) not leave him until he was (is) conducted into Cæsar's presence. So, rarely, the Perfect Subjunctive (as B. G. iii. 18).

c. Antequam and priusquam, when referring to future time, take the Present or Future Perfect Indicative ; rarely the Present Subjunctive:

priusquam dē cēterīs rēbus respondeō, dē amīcitiā pauca dīcam (Phil. ii. 3), before I reply to the rest, I will say a little about friendship.

nōn dēfatīgābor antequam illōrum ancipitēs viās percēperō (De Or. iii. 145), I shall not weary till I have traced out their doubtful ways.

antequam veniat litterās mittet (Leg. Agr. ii. 53), before he comes, he will send a letter.

NOTE 1.—The Future Indicative is very rare.

NOTE 2.—In a few cases the Subjunctive of present general condition is found with antequam and priusquam (cf. § 518. a): as,— in omnibus neg=oti=is priusquam aggrediāre, adhibenda est praepar=ati=o d=ilig=ens (Off. i. 73), in all undertakings, before you proceed to action, careful preparation must be used.
DUM, DŌNEC, AND QUOAD

Dum, Dōnec, and Quoad

552. As an adverb meaning for a time, awhile, dum is found in old Latin, chiefly as an enclitic (cf. vixdum, nōndum). Its use as a conjunction comes either through correlation (cf. cum …tum, sī …sīc) or through substitution for a conjunction, as in the English the moment I saw it, I understood. Quoad is a compound of the relative quō, up to which point, with ad. The origin and early history of dōnec are unknown.

553. Dum and quoad, until, take the Present or Imperfect Subjunctive in temporal clauses implying intention or expectancy:—

exspectās fortasse dum dīcat (Tusc. ii. 17), you are waiting perhaps for him to say (until he say). [Dum is especially common after exspectō.]

dum reliquae nāvēs convenīrent, ad hōram nōnam exspectāvit (B. G. iv. 23), he waited till the ninth hour for the rest of the ships to join him.

comitia dīlāta [sunt] dum lēx ferrētur (Att. iv. 17. 3), the election was postponed until a law should be passed.

an id exspectāmus, quoad nē vestīgium quidem Asiae cīvitātum atque urbium relinquātur (Phil. xi. 25), shall we wait for this until not a trace is left of the states and cities of Asia?

Epamīnōndās exercēbātur plūrimum luctandō ad eum fīnem quoad stāns complectī posset atque contendere (Nep. Epam. 2), Epaminondas trained himself in wrestling so far as to be able (until he should be able) to grapple standing and fight (in that way).

NOTE 1.—Dōnec is similarly used in poetry and later Latin: as,— et dūxit long=e dōnec curv=ata coīrent inter s=e capita (Aen. xi. 860), and drew it (the bow) until the curved tips touched each other.

NOTE 2.—Dum, until, may be used with the Present or Future Perfect Indicative to state a future fact when there is no idea of intention or expectancy; but this construction is rare in classic prose. The Future is also found in early Latin. Dōnec, until, is similarly used, in poetry and early Latin, with the Present and Future Perfect Indicative, rarely with the Future:—

ego in Arcānō opperior dum ista cōgnōscō (Att. x. 3), I am waiting in the villa at Arcæuntil I find this out. [This is really dum, while.]

mihi ūsque cūrae erit quid agās, dum quid ēgeris scierō (Fam. xii. 19. 3), I shall always feel anxious as to what you are doing, until I actually know (shall have known) what you have done.

dēlicta mâiōrum luēs dōnec templa refēceris (Hor. Od. iii. 6. 1), you shall suffer for the sins of your ancestors until you rebuild the temples.

ter centum rēgnābitur annōs, dōnec geminam partū dabit īlia prōlem (Aen. i. 272), sway shall be held for thrice a hundred years, until Ilia shall give birth to twin offspring.

554. Dōnec and quoad, until, with the Perfect Indicative denote an actual fact in past time:—

dōnec rediit silentium fuit (Liv. xxiii. 31. 9), there was silence until he returned.

ūsque eō timuī dōnec ad rêiciendōs iūdicēs vēnimus (Verr. ii. 1. 17), I was anxious until the moment when we came to challenge the jurors.

Rōmae fuērunt quoad L. Metellus in prōvinciam profectus est (id. ii. 62), they remained at Rome until Lucius Metellus set out for the province.

SYNTAX: TEMPORAL CLAUSES
NOTE.—Dum, until, with the Perfect Indicative is rare: as,— m=ansit in condici=one =usque ad eum f=inem dum i=udic=es rêiectī sunt (Verr. i. 16), he remained true to the agreement until the jurors were challenged.

555. Dum, dōnec, and quoad, as long as, take the Indicative:—

dum anima est, spēs esse dīcitur (Att. ix. 10. 3), as long as there is life, there is said to be hope.

dum praesidia ūlla fuērunt, in Sullae praesidiīs fuit (Rosc. Am. 126), so long as there were any garrisons, he was in the garrisons of Sulla.

dum longius ā mūnītiōne aberant Gallī, plūs multitūdine tēlōrum prōficiēbant (B. G. vii. 82), so long as the Gauls were at a distance from the fortifications, they had the advantage because of their missiles.

dōnec grātus eram tibī, Persārum viguī rēge beātior (Hor. Od. iii. 9. 1), as long as I enjoyed thy favor, I flourished happier than the king of the Persians.

quoad potuit fortissimē restitit (B. G. iv. 12), he resisted bravely as long as he could.

NOTE 1.—Dōnec in this use is confined to poetry and later writers.

NOTE 2.—Quam diū, as long as, takes the Indicative only: as,— s=e oppid=o tam di=u tenuit quam diū in pr=ovinci=a Parth=i fuērunt (Fam. xii. 19. 2), he kept himself within the town as long as the Parthians were in the province.

556. Dum, while, regularly takes the Present Indicative to denote continued action in past time. In translating, the English Imperfect must generally be used:—

dum haec geruntur, Caesarī nūntiātum est (B. G. i. 46), while this was going on, a message was brought to Cæsar.

haec dum aguntur, intereā Cleomenēs iam ad Elōrī lītus pervēnerat (Verr. v. 91), while this was going on, Cleomenes meanwhile had come down to the coast at Elorum.

hōc dum nārrat, forte audīvī (Ter. Haut. 272), I happened to hear this while she was telling it.

NOTE.—This construction is a special use of the Historical Present (§ 469).

a. A past tense with dum (usually so long as) makes the time emphatic by contrast; but a few irregular cases of dum with a past tense occur where no contrast is intended:

nec enim dum eram vōbīscum, animum meum vidēbātis (Cat. M. 79), for while I was with you, you could not see my soul. [Here the time when he was alive is contrasted with that after his death.]

coörta est pūgna, pār dum cōnstābant ōrdinēs (Liv. xxii. 47), a conflict began, well matched as long as the ranks stood firm.

But,— dum oculōs hostium certāmen āverterat (id. xxxii. 24), while the struggle kept the eyes of the enemy turned away.

dum ūnum adscendere gradum cōnātus est, vēnit in perīculum (Mur. 55), while he attempted to climb one step [in rank] he fell into danger.

CLAUSES WITH QUĪN AND QUŌMINUS
NOTE.—In later writers, dum sometimes takes the Subjunctive when the classical usage would require the Indicative, and dōnec, until, is freely used in this manner (especially by Tacitus):—

dum ea in Samniō gererentur, in Etruriā interim bellum ingēns concītur (Liv. x. 18), while this was being done in Samnium, meanwhile a great war was stirred up in Etruria.

illa quidem dum tē fugeret, hydrum nōn vīdit (Georg. iv. 457), while she was fleeing from you she did not see the serpent.

dum per vīcōs dēportārētur, condormiēbat (Suet. Aug. 78), while he was being carried through the streets he used to fall dead asleep.

Rhēnus servat nōmen et violentiam cursūs (qu=a Germ=aniam praevehitur) dōnec =Ocean=o misceātur (Tac. Ann. ii. 6), the Rhine keeps its name and rapid course (where it borders Germany) until it mingles with the ocean.

temporibusque Augustī dīcendīs nōn dēfuēre decōra ingenia dōnec glīscente adūlātiōne dēterrērentur (id. i. 1), for describing the times of Augustus there was no lack of talent until it was frightened away by the increasing servility of the age.

For dum, provided that, see § 528.

CLAUSES WITH QU=iN AND QU=OMINUS

557. The original meaning of quīn is how not? why not? (quī-nē), and when used with the Indicative or (rarely) with the Subjunctive it regularly implies a general negative. Thus, quīn ego hōc rogem? why should n't I ask this? implies that there is no reason for not asking. The implied negative was then expressed in a main clause, like nūlla causa est or fierī nōn potest. Hence come the various dependent constructions introduced by quīn. Quōminus is really a phrase (quō minus), and the dependent constructions which it introduces have their origin in the relative clause of purpose with quō and a comparative (see § 531. a).

558. A subjunctive clause with quīn is used after verbs and other expressions of hindering, resisting, refusing, doubting, delaying, and the like, when these are negatived, either expressly or by implication:—

nōn hūmāna ūlla neque dīvīna obstant quīn sociōs amīcōs trahant exscindant (Sall. Ep. Mith. 17), no human or divine laws prevent them from taking captive and exterminating their friendly allies.

ut nē Suessiōnēs quidem dēterrēre potuerint quīn cum hīs cōnsentīrent (B. G. ii. 3), that they were unable to hinder even the Suessiones from making common cause with them.

nōn posse mīlitēs continērī quīn in urbem inrumperent (B. C. ii. 12), that the soldiers could not be restrained from bursting into the city.

nōn recūsat quīn iūdicēs (Deiot. 43), he does not object to your judging.

neque recūsāre quīn armīs contendant (B. G. iv. 7), and that they did not refuse to fight.

praeterīre nōn potuī quīn scrīberem ad tē (Caesar ap. Cic. Att. ix. 6 A), I could not neglect to write to you.

SYNTAX: DEPENDENT CONSTRUCTIONS Trēverī tōtīus hiemis nūllum tempus intermīsērunt quīn lēgātōs mitterent (B. G. v. 55), the Treveri let no part of the winter pass without sending ambassadors. [Cf. B. G. v. 53; B. C. i. 78.]

nōn cūnctandum exīstimāvit quīn pūgnā dēcertāret (B. G. iii. 23), he thought he ought not to delay risking a decisive battle.

paulum āfuit quīn Vārum interficeret (B. C. ii. 35), he just missed killing Varus (it lacked little but that he should kill).

neque multum āfuit quīn castrīs expellerentur (id. ii. 35), they came near being driven out of the camp.

facere nōn possum quīn cotīdiē ad tē mittam (Att. xii. 27. 2), I cannot help sending to you every day.

fierī nūllō modō poterat quīn Cleomenī parcerētur (Verr. v. 104), it was out of the question that Cleomenes should not be spared.

ut efficī nōn possit quīn eōs ōderim (Phil. xi. 36), so that nothing can prevent my hating them.

a. Quīn is especially common with nōn dubitō, I do not doubt, nōn est dubium, there is no doubt, and similar expressions:—

nōn dubitābat quīn eī crēderēmus (Att. vi. 2. 3), he did not doubt that we believed him.

illud cavē dubitēs quīn ego omnia faciam (Fam. v. 20. 6), do not doubt that I will do all.

quis īgnōrat quīn tria Graecōrum genera sint (Flacc. 64), who is ignorant that there are three races of Greeks?

nōn erat dubium quīn Helvētiī plūrimum possent (cf. B. G. i. 3), there was no doubt that the Helvetians were most powerful.

neque Caesarem fefellit quīn ab iīs cohortibus initium victōriae orīrētur (B. C. iii. 94), and it did not escape Cæsar's notice that the beginning of the victory came from those cohorts.

NOTE 1.—Dubitō without a negative is regularly followed by an Indirect Question; so sometimes nōn dubitō and the like:—

nōn nūllī dubitant an per Sardiniam veniat (Fam. ix. 7), some doubt whether he is coming through Sardinia.

dubitāte, sī potestis, ā quō sit Sex. Rōscius occīsus (Rosc. Am. 78), doubt, if you can, by whom Sextus Roscius was murdered.

dubitābam tū hās ipsās litterās essēsne acceptūrus (Att. xv. 9), I doubt whether you will receive this very letter. [Epistolary Imperfect (§ 479).]

quālis sit futūrus, nē vōs quidem dubitātis (B. C. ii. 32), and what it (the outcome) will be, you yourselves do not doubt.

nōn dubitō quid sentiant (Fam. xv. 9), I do not doubt what they think.

dubium illī nōn erat quid futūrum esset (id. viii. 8. 1), it was not doubtful to him what was going to happen.

NOTE 2.—Nōn dubitō in the sense of I do not hesitate commonly takes the Infinitive, but sometimes quīn with the Subjunctive:—

nec dubitāre illum appellāre sapientem (Lael. 1), and not to hesitate to call him a sage.

dubitandum nōn exīstimāvit quīn proficīscerētur (B. G. ii. 2), he did not think he ought to hesitate to set out.

quid dubitās ūtī temporis opportūnitāte (B. C. ii. 34), why do you hesitate to take advantage of the favorable moment? [A question implying a negative.]

CLAUSES WITH QUĪN AND QUŌMINUS
b. Verbs of hindering and refusing often take the subjunctive with nē or quōminus (= ut eō minus), especially when the verb is not negatived:—

plūra nē dīcam tuae mē lacrimae impediunt (Planc. 104), your tears prevent me from speaking further.

nec aetās impedit quōminus agrī colendī studia teneāmus (Cat. M. 60), nor does age prevent us from retaining an interest in tilling the soil.

nihil impedit quōminus id facere possīmus (Fin. i. 33), nothing hinders us from being able to do that.

obstitistī nē trānsīre cōpiae possent (Verr. v. 5), you opposed the passage of the troops (opposed lest the troops should cross).

NOTE.—Some verbs of hindering may take the Infinitive:—

nihil obest dīcere (Fam. ix. 13. 4), there is nothing to prevent my saying it.

prohibet accēdere (Caec. 46), prevents him from approaching.

559. A clause of Result or Characteristic may be introduced by quīn after a general negative, where quīn is equivalent to quī (quae, quod) n=on:—
1. Clauses of Result:—

nēmō est tam fortis quīn [ q̄uī nōn] reī novitāte perturbētur (B. G. vi. 39), no one is so brave as not to be disturbed by the unexpected occurrence.

nēmō erat adeō tardus quīn putāret (B. C. i. 69), no one was so slothful as not to think, etc.

quis est tam dēmēns quīn sentiat (Balb. 43), who is so senseless as not to think, etc.?

nīl tam difficilest quīn quaerendō investīgārī possiet (Ter. Haut. 675), nothing's so hard but search will find it out (Herrick).

2. Clauses of Characteristic:—

nēmō nostrum est quīn [ q̄uī nōn] sciat (Rosc. Am. 55), there is no one of us who does not know.

nēmō fuit mīlitum quīn vulnerārētur (B. C. iii. 53), there was not one of the soldiers who was not wounded.

ecquis fuit quīn lacrimāret (Verr. v. 121), was there any one who did not shed tears?

quis est quīn intellegat (Fin. v. 64), who is there who does not understand?

hōrum nihil est quīn [ q̄uod nōn] intereat (N. D. iii. 30), there is none of these (elements) which does not perish.

nihil est illōrum quīn [ q̄uod nōn] ego illī dīxerim (Pl. Bac. 1012), there is nothing of this that I have not told him.

NOTE.—Quīn sometimes introduces a pure clause of result with the sense of ut nōn: as,— numquam tam male est Sicul=is quīn aliquid fac=et=e et commod=e dīcant (Verr. iv. 95), things are never so bad with the Sicilians but that they have something pleasant or witty to say.

For quīn in independent constructions, see § 449. b.

SYNTAX: SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES

SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES

560. A clause which is used as a noun may be called a Substantive Clause, as certain relative clauses are sometimes called adjective clauses. But in practice the term is restricted to clauses which represent a nominative or an accusative case, the clauses which stand for an ablative being sometimes called adverbial clauses. Even with this limitation the term is not quite precise (see p. 367, footnote 1). The fact is rather that the clause and the leading verb are mutually complementary ; each reinforces the other. The simplest and probably the earliest form of such sentences is to be found in the paratactic use (see § 268) of two verbs like volō abeās, dīcāmus cēnseō, adeam optimum est. From such verbs the usage spread by analogy to other verbs (see lists on pp. 363, 367, footnotes), and the complementary relation of the clause to the verb came to resemble the complementary force of the accusative, especially the accusative of cognate meaning (§ 390).

561. A clause used as a noun is called a Substantive Clause.
a. A Substantive Clause may be used as the Subject or Object of a verb, as an Appositive, or as a Predicate Nominative or Accusative.
NOTE 1.—Many ideas which in English take the form of an abstract noun may be rendered by a substantive clause in Latin. Thus, he demanded an investigation may be postulābat ut quaestiō habērētur. The common English expression for with the infinitive also corresponds to a Latin substantive clause: as,— it remains for me to speak of the piratic war, reliquum est ut dē bellō dīcam pīrāticō.

NOTE 2.—When a Substantive Clause is used as subject, the verb to which it is subject is called impersonal, and the sign of the construction in English is commonly the so-called expletive IT.

562. Substantive Clauses are classified as follows:— 1. Subjunctive Clauses (ut, nē, ut nōn, etc.). a. Of purpose (command, wish, fear) (§§ 563,564). b. Of result (happen, effect, etc.) (§ 568). 2. Indicative Clauses with quod: Fact, Specification, Feeling (§ 572). 3. Indirect Questions: Subjunctive, introduced by an Interrogative Word (§§ 573–576). 4. Infinitive Clauses a. With verbs of ordering, wishing , etc. (§ 563). b. Indirect Discourse (§ 579 ff.).
NOTE.—The Infinitive with Subject Accusative is not strictly a clause, but in Latin it has undergone so extensive a development that it may be so classed. The uses of the Infinitive Clause are of two kinds: (1) in constructions in which it replaces a subjunctive clause with ut etc.; (2) in the Indirect Discourse. The first class will be discussed in connection with the appropriate subjunctive constructions (§ 563) ; for Indirect Discourse, see § 579 ff.

Substantive Clauses of Purpose

563. Substantive Clauses of Purpose with ut (negative nē) are used as the object of verbs denoting an action directed toward the future. SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES OF PURPOSE Such are, verbs meaning to admonish, ask, bargain, command, decree, determine, permit, persuade, resolve, urge, and wish: —²³³

monet ut omnēs suspīciōnēs vītet (B. G. i. 20), he warns him to avoid all suspicion.

hortātur eōs nē animō dēficiant (B. C. i. 19), he urges them not to lose heart.

tē rogō atque ōrō ut eum iuvēs (Fam. xiii. 66), I beg and pray you to aid him.

hīs utī conquīrerent imperāvit (B. G. i. 28), he ordered them to search.

persuādet Casticō ut rēgnum occupāret (id. i. 3), he persuades Casticus to usurp royal power.

suīs imperāvit nē quod omnīnō tēlum rêicerent (id. i. 46), he ordered his men not to throw back any weapon at all.

NOTE.—With any verb of these classes the poets may use the Infinitive instead of an object clause:—

hortāmur fārī (Aen. ii. 74), we urge [him] to speak.

nē quaere docērī (id. vi. 614), seek not to be told.

temptat praevertere (id. i. 721), she attempts to turn, etc.

For the Subjunctive without ut with verbs of commanding, see § 565. a.

a. Iubeō, order, and vetō, forbid, take the Infinitive with Subject Accusative:—

Labiēnum iugum montis ascendere iubet (B. G. i. 21), he orders Labienus to ascend the ridge of the hill.

līberōs ad sē addūcī iussit (id. ii. 5), he ordered the children to be brought to him.

ab opere lēgātōs discēdere vetuerat (id. ii. 20), he had forbidden the lieutenants to leave the work.

vetuēre [bona] reddī (Liv. ii. 5), they forbade the return of the goods (that the goods be returned).

NOTE.—Some other verbs of commanding etc. occasionally take the Infinitive:—

pontem imperant fierī (B. C. i. 61), they order a bridge to be built.

rēs monet cavēre (Sall. Cat. 52. 3), the occasion warns us to be on our guard.

b. Verbs of wishing take either the Infinitive or the Subjunctive. With volō (nōlō, mālō) and cupiō the Infinitive is commoner, and the subject of the infinitive is rarely expressed when it would be the same as that of the main verb. With other verbs of wishing the Subjunctive is commoner when the subject changes, the Infinitive when it remains the same.
1. Subject of dependent verb same as that of the verb of wishing: —

augur fierī voluī (Fam. xv. 4. 13), I wished to be made augur.

cupiō vigiliam meam tibi trādere (id. xi. 24), I am eager to hand over my watch to you.

SYNTAX: SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES iūdicem mē esse, nōn doctōrem volō (Or. 117), I wish to be a judge, not a teacher.

mē Caesaris mīlitem dīcī voluī (B. C. ii. 32. 13), I wished to be called a soldier of Cæsar.

cupiō mē esse clēmentem (Cat. i. 4), I desire to be merciful. [But regularly, cupi=o esse clēmēns (see § 457).]

omnīs hominēs, quī sēsē student praestāre cēterīs animālibus (Sall. Cat. 1), all men who wish to excel other living creatures.

2. Subject of dependent verb different from that of the verb of wishing:

volō tē scīre (Fam. ix. 24. 1), I wish you to know.

vim volumus exstinguī (Sest. 92), we wish violence to be put down.

tē tuā fruī virtūte cupimus (Brut. 331), we wish you to reap the fruits of your virtue.

cupiō ut impetret (Pl. Capt. 102), I wish he may get it.

numquam optābō ut audiātis (Cat. ii. 15), I will never desire that you shall hear.

For volō and its compounds with the Subjunctive without ut, see § 565.

c. Verbs of permitting take either the Subjunctive or the Infinitive. Patior takes regularly the Infinitive with Subject Accusative ; so often sinō:—

permīsit ut faceret (De Or. ii. 366), permitted him to make.

concēdō tibi ut ea praetereās (Rosc. Am. 54), I allow you to pass by these matters.

tabernācula statuī passus nōn est (B. C. i. 81), he did not allow tents to be pitched.

vīnum importārī nōn sinunt (B. G. iv. 2), they do not allow wine to be imported.

d. Verbs of determining, decreeing, resolving, bargaining, take either the Subjunctive or the Infinitive:—

cōnstituerant ut L. Bēstia quererētur (Sall. Cat. 43), they had determined that Lucius Bestia should complain.

proeliō supersedēre statuit (B. G. ii. 8), he determined to refuse battle.

dē bonīs rēgis quae reddī cēnsuerant (Liv. ii. 5), about the king's goods, which they had decreed should be restored.

dēcernit utī cōnsulēs dīlēctum habeant (Sall. Cat. 34), decrees that the consuls shall hold a levy.

ēdictō nē quis iniussū pūgnāret (Liv. v. 19), having commanded that none should fight without orders.

NOTE 1.—Different verbs of these classes with the same meaning vary in their construction (see the Lexicon). For verbs of bargaining etc. with the Gerundive, see § 500. 4.

NOTE 2.—Verbs of decreeing and voting often take the Infinitive of the Second Periphrastic conjugation:— R=egulus captīvōs reddendōs [esse] n=on c=ensuit (Off. i. 39), Regulus voted that the captives should not be returned. [He said, in giving his formal opinion: captīvī nōn reddendī sunt.]
SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES OF PURPOSE
e. Verbs of caution and effort take the Subjunctive with ut. But cōnor, try, commonly takes the Complementary Infinitive:—

cūrā ut quam prīmum intellegam (Fam. xiii. 10. 4), let me know as soon as possible (take care that I may understand).

dant operam ut habeant (Sall. Cat. 41), they take pains to have (give their attention that, etc.).

impellere utī Caesar nōminārētur (id. 49), to induce them to name Cæsar (that Cæsar should be named).

cōnātus est Caesar reficere pontīs (B. C. i. 50), Cæsar tried to rebuild the bridges.

NOTE 1.—Cōnor sī also occurs (as B. G. i. 8); cf. mīror sī etc., § 572. b. N.

NOTE 2.—Ut nē occurs occasionally with verbs of caution and effort (cf. § 531):— c=ur=a et pr=ovid=e ut nēquid eī dēsit (Att. xi. 3. 3), take care and see that he lacks nothing.

For the Subjunctive with quīn and quōminus with verbs of hindering etc., see § 558.

5.4. Verbs of fearing take the Subjunctive, with nē affirmative and nē nōn or ut negative. In this use nē is commonly to be translated by that, ut and nē nōn by that not:—

timeō nē Verrēs fēcerit (Verr. v. 3), I fear that Verres has done, etc.

nē animum offenderet verēbātur (B. G. i. 19), he feared that he should hurt the feelings, etc.

nē exhērēdārētur veritus est (Rosc. Am. 58), he feared that he should be disinherited.

ōrātor metuō nē languēscat senectūte (Cat. M. 28), I fear the orator grows feeble from old age.

vereor ut tibi possim concēdere (De Or. i. 35), I fear that I cannot grant you.

haud sānē perīculum est nē nōn mortem optandam putet (Tusc. v. 118), there is no danger that he will not think death desirable.

NOTE.—The subjunctive in nē-clauses after a verb of fearing is optative in origin. To an independent nē-sentence, as nē accidat, may it not happen, a verb may be prefixed (cf. § 560), making a complex sentence. Thus, vidē nē accidat; ōrō nē accidat; cavet nē accidat; when the prefixed verb is one of fearing, timeō nē accidat becomes let it not happen, but I fear that it may. The origin of the ut-clause is similar.

5.5. Volō and its compounds, the impersonals licet and oportet, and the imperatives dīc and fac often take the Subjunctive without ut:—

volō amēs (Att. ii. 10), I wish you to love.

quam vellem mē invītāssēs (Fam. x. 28. 1), how I wish you had invited me!

māllem Cerberum metuerēs (Tusc. i. 12), I had rather you feared Cerberus.

sint enim oportet (id. i. 12), for they must exist.

querāmur licet (Caec. 41), we are allowed to complain.

fac dīligās (Att. iii. 13. 2), do love! [A periphrasis for the imperative dīlige, love (cf. § 449. c).]

dīc exeat, tell him to go out.

SYNTAX: SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES
NOTE 1.—In such cases there is no ellipsis of ut. The expressions are idiomatic remnants of an older construction in which the subjunctives were hortatory or optative and thus really independent of the verb of wishing etc. In the classical period, however, they were doubtless felt as subordinate. Compare the use of cavē and the subjunctive
(without nē) in Prohibitions (§ 450), which appears to follow the analogy of fac.

NOTE 2.—Licet may take (1) the Subjunctive, usually without ut; (2) the simple Infinitive; (3) the Infinitive with Subject Accusative; (4) the Dative and the Infinitive (see § 455. 1). Thus, I may go is licet eam, licet īre, licet mē īre, or licet mihi īre.

For licet in concessive clauses, see § 527. b.

NOTE 3.—Oportet may take (1) the Subjunctive without ut; (2) the simple Infinitive; (3) the Infinitive with Subject Accusative. Thus I must go is oportet eam, oportet īre, or oportet mē īre.

a. Verbs of commanding and the like often take the subjunctive without ut:—

huic mandat Rēmōs adeat (B. G. iii. 11), he orders him to visit the Remi.

rogat fīnem faciat (id. i. 20), he asks him to cease.

Mnēsthea vocat, classem aptent sociī (Aen. iv. 289), he calls Mnestheus [and orders that] his comrades shall make ready the fleet.

NOTE.—The subjunctive in this construction is the hortatory subjunctive used to express a command in Indirect Discourse (§ 588).

Substantive Clauses of Purpose with Passive Verbs

566. A Substantive Clause used as the object of a verb becomes the subject when the verb is put in the passive (Impersonal Construction):—

Caesar ut cōgnōsceret postulātum est (B. C. i. 87), Cæsar was requested to make an investigation (it was requested that Cæsar should make an investigation).

sī erat Hēracliō ab senātū mandātum ut emeret (Verr. iii. 88), if Heraclius had been instructed by the senate to buy.

sī persuāsum erat Cluviō ut mentīrētur (Rosc. Com. 51), if Cluvius had been persuaded to lie.

putō concēdī nōbīs oportēre ut Graecō verbō ūtāmur (Fin. iii. 15), I think we must be allowed to use a Greek word.

nē quid eīs noceātur ā Caesare cavētur (B. C. i. 86), Cæsar takes care that no harm shall be done them (care is taken by Cæsar lest, etc.).

a. With verbs of admonishing, the personal object becomes the subject and the object clause is retained:—

admonitī sumus ut cavērēmus (Att. viii. 11 D. 3), we were warned to be careful.

cum monērētur ut cautior esset (Div. i. 51), when he was advised to be more cautious.

monērī vīsus est nē id faceret (id. 56), he seemed to be warned not to do it.

SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES OF RESULT
b. Some verbs that take an infinitive instead of a subjunctive are used impersonally in the passive, and the infinitive becomes the subject of the sentence:—

loquī nōn concēditur (B. G. vi. 20), it is not allowed to speak.

c. With iubeō, vetō, and cōgō, the subject accusative of the infinitive becomes the subject nominative of the main verb, and the infinitive is retained as complementary (Personal Construction):—

adesse iubentur postrīdiē (Verr. ii. 41), they are ordered to be present on the following day.

īre in exsilium iussus est (Cat. ii. 12), he was ordered to go into exile.

Simōnidēs vetitus est nāvigāre (Div. ii. 134), Simonides was forbidden to sail.

Mandubiī exīre cōguntur (B. G. vii. 78), the Mandubii are compelled to go out.

Substantive Clauses of Result (Consecutive Clauses)

5.7. Clauses of Result may be used substantively, (1) as the object of faciō etc. (§ 568); (2) as the subject of these same verbs in the passive, as well as of other verbs and verbal phrases (§ 569); (3) in apposition with another substantive, or as predicate nominative etc. (see §§ 570, 571).²³⁴
5.8. Substantive Clauses of Result with ut (negative ut nōn) are used as the object of verbs denoting the accomplishment of an effort.²³⁵ Such are especially faciō and its compounds (efficiō, cōnficiō, etc.):—

efficiam ut intellegātis (Clu. 7), I will make you understand (lit. effect that you, etc.). [So, faciam ut intellegātis (id. 9).]

commeātūs ut portārī possent efficiēbat (B. G. ii. 5), made it possible that supplies could be brought.

perfēcī ut ē rēgnō ille discēderet (Fam. xv. 4. 6), I brought about his departure from the kingdom.

quae lībertās ut laetior esset rēgis superbia fēcerat (Liv. ii. 1), the arrogance of the king had made this liberty more welcome.

ēvincunt īnstandō ut litterae darentur (id. ii. 4), by insisting they gain their point,— that letters should be sent. [Here ēvincunt ēfficiunt.]

SYNTAX: SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES
NOTE 1.—The expressions facere ut, committere ut, with the subjunctive, often form a periphrasis for the simple verb: as,— inv=itus fēcī ut Fl=aminium =e sen=at=u ēicerem (Cat. M. 42), it was with reluctance that I expelled Flaminius from the senate.

569. Substantive Clauses of Result are used as the subject of the following:—
1. Of passive verbs denoting the accomplishment of an effort:—

impetrātum est ut in senātū recitārentur (litterae) (B. C. i. 1), they succeeded in having the letter read in the senate (it was brought about that, etc.).

ita efficitur ut omne corpus mortāle sit (N. D. iii. 30), it therefore is made out that every body is mortal.

2. Of Impersonals meaning it happens, it remains, it follows, it is necessary, it is added, and the like (§ 568, footnote):—

accidit ut esset lūna plēna (B. G. iv. 29), it happened to be full moon (it happened that it was, etc.). [Here ut esset is subject of accidit.]

reliquum est ut officiīs certēmus inter nōs (Fam. vii. 31), it remains for us to vie with each other in courtesies.

restat ut hōc dubitēmus (Rosc. Am. 88), it is left for us to doubt this.

sequitur ut doceam (N. D. ii. 81), the next thing is to show (it follows, etc.).

NOTE 1.—The infinitive sometimes occurs: as,— nec enim acciderat mihi opus esse (Fam. vi. 11. 1), for it had not happened to be necessary to me.

NOTE 2.—Necesse est often takes the subjunctive without ut: as,— concēdās necesse est (Rosc. Am. 87), you must grant.

3. Of est in the sense of it is the fact that, etc. (mostly poetic):—

est ut virō vir lātius ōrdinet arbusta (Hor. Od. iii. 1. 9), it is the fact that one man plants his vineyards in wider rows than another.

a. Fore (or futūrum esse) ut with a clause of result as subject is often used instead of the Future Infinitive active or passive; so necessarily in verbs which have no supine stem:—

spērō fore ut contingat id nōbīs (Tusc. i. 82), I hope that will be our happy lot.

cum vidērem fore ut nōn possem (Cat. ii. 4), when I saw that I should not be able.

570. A substantive clause of result may be in apposition with another substantive (especially a neuter pronoun):—

illud etiam restiterat, ut tē in iūs ēdūcerent (Quinct. 33), this too remained — for them to drag you into court.

571. A substantive clause of result may serve as predicate nominative after mōs est and similar expressions:—

est mōs hominum, ut nōlint eundem plūribus rōbus excellere (Brut. 84), it is the way of men to be unwilling for one man to excel in several things.

INDICATIVE WITH QUOD
a. A result clause, with or without ut, frequently follows quam after a comparative (but see § 583. c):—

Canachī sīgna rigidiōra sunt quam ut imitentur vēritātem (Brut. 70), the statues of Canachus are too stiff to represent nature (stiffer than that they should).

perpessus est omnia potius quam indicāret (Tusc. ii. 52), he endured all rather than betray, etc. [Regularly without ut except in Livy.]

b. The phrase tantum abest, it is so far [from being the case], regularly takes two clauses of result with ut: one is substantive, the subject of abest; the other is adverbial, correlative with tantum:—

tantum abest ut nostra mīrēmur, ut =usque e=o difficil=es ac m=or=os=i s=imus, ut n=ob=is n=on satis faciat ipse D=emosthen=es (Or. 104), so far from admiring my own works, I am difficult and captious to that degree that not Demosthenes himself satisfies me. [Here the first ut-clause is the subject of abest (§ 569. 2); the second, a result clause after tantum (§ 537); and the third, after ūsque eō.]

c. Rarely, a thought or an idea is considered as a result, and is expressed by the subjunctive with ut instead of the accusative and infinitive (§ 580). In this case a demonstrative usually precedes:

praeclārum illud est, ut eōs …amēmus (Tusc. iii. 73), this is a noble thing, that we should love, etc.

vērī simile nōn est ut ille antepōneret (Verr. iv. 11), it is not likely that he preferred.

For Relative Clauses with quīn after verbs of hindering etc., see § 558.

Indicative with Quod

572. A peculiar form of Substantive Clause consists of quod (in the sense of that, the fact that) with the Indicative. The clause in the Indicative with quod is used when the statement is regarded as a fact:—

alterum est vitium, quod quīdam nimis māgnum studium cōnferunt (Off. i. 19), it is another fault that some bestow too much zeal, etc. [Here ut c=onferant could be used, meaning that some should bestow; or the accusative and infinitive, meaning to bestow (abstractly); quod makes it a fact that men do bestow, etc.]

inter inanimum et animal hōc maximē interest, quod animal agit aliquid (Acad. ii. 37), this is the chief difference between an inanimate object and an animal, that an animal aims at something.

quod rediit nōbīs mīrābile vidētur (Off. iii. 111), that he (Regulus) returned seems wonderful to us.

accidit perincommodē quod eum nusquam vīdistī (Att. i. 17. 2), it happened very unluckily that you nowhere saw him.

SYNTAX: SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES opportūnissima rēs accidit quod Germānī vēnērunt (B. G. iv. 13), a very fortunate thing happened, (namely) that the Germans came.

praetereō quod eam sibi domum sēdemque dēlēgit (Clu. 188), I pass over the fact that she chose that house and home for herself.

mittō quod possessa per vim (Flacc. 79), I disregard the fact that they were seized by violence.

NOTE.—Like other substantive clauses, the clause with quod may be used as subject, as object, as appositive, etc., but it is commonly either the subject or in apposition with the subject.

a. A substantive clause with quod sometimes appears as an accusative of specification, corresponding to the English whereas or as to the fact that:—

quod mihi dē nostrō statū grātulāris, minimē mīrāmur tē tuīs praeclārīs operibus laetārī (Fam. i. 7. 7), as to your congratulating me on our condition, we are not at all surprised that you are pleased with your own noble works.

quod dē domō scrībis, ego, etc. (Fam. xiv. 2. 3), as to what you write of the house, I, etc.

b. Verbs of feeling and the expression of feeling take either quod (quia) or the accusative and infinitive (Indirect Discourse):—

quod scrībis …gaudeō (Q. Fr. iii. 1. 9), I am glad that you write.

faciō libenter quod eam nōn possum praeterīre (Legg. i. 63), I am glad that I cannot pass it by.

quae perfecta esse vehementer laetor (Rosc. Am. 136), I greatly rejoice that this is finished.

quī quia nōn habuit ā mē turmās equitum fortasse suscēnset (Att. vi. 3. 5), who perhaps feels angry that he did not receive squadrons of cavalry from me.

molestē tulī tē senātuī grātiās nōn ēgisse (Fam. x. 27. 1), I was displeased that you did not return thanks to the senate.

NOTE.—Mīror and similar expressions are sometimes followed by a clause with sī.²³⁶ This is apparently substantive, but really protasis (cf. § 563. e. N. 1). Thus,— m=iror sī quemquam am=icum hab=ere potuit (Lael.54), I wonder if he could ever have a friend. [Originally, If this is so, I wonder at it.]

Indirect Questions

573. An Indirect Question is any sentence or clause which is introduced by an interrogative word (pronoun, adverb, etc.), and which is itself the subject or object of a verb, or depends on any expression implying uncertainty or doubt. In grammatical form, exclamatory sentences are not distinguished from interrogative (see the third example below). INDIRECT QUESTIONS

574. An Indirect Question takes its verb in the Subjunctive:

quid ipse sentiam expōnam (Div. i. 10), I will explain what I think. [Direct: quid sentiō ?]

id possetne fierī cōnsuluit (id. i. 32), he consulted whether it could be done. [Direct: potestne ?]

quam sīs audāx omnēs intellegere potuērunt (Rosc. Am. 87), all could understand how bold you are. [Direct: quam es audāx !]

doleam necne doleam nihil interest (Tusc. ii. 29), it is of no account whether I suffer or not. [Double question.]

quaesīvī ā Catilīnā in conventū apud M. Laecam fuisset necne (Cat. ii. 13), I asked Catiline whether he had been at the meeting at Marcus Læca's or not. [Double question.]

rogat mē quid sentiam, he asks me what I think. [Cf. rogat mē sententiam, he asks me my opinion.] hōc dubium est, uter nostrum sit inverēcundior (Acad. ii. 126), this is doubtful, which of us two is the less modest.

incertī quātenus Volerō exercēret victōriam (Liv. ii. 55), uncertain how far Volero would push victory. [As if dubitantēs quātenus, etc.]

NOTE.—An Indirect Question may be the subject of a verb (as in the fourth example), the direct object (as in the first), the secondary object (as in the sixth), an appositive (as in the seventh).

575. The Sequence of Tenses in Indirect Question is illustrated by the following examples:—

dīcō quid faciam, I tell you what I am doing. dīcō quid factūrus sim, I tell you what I will (shall) do.

dīcō quid fēcerim, I tell you what I did (have done, was doing).

dīxī quid facerem, I told you what I was doing. dīxī quid fēcissem, I told you what I had done (had been doing).

dīxī quid factūrus essem, I told you what I would (should) do (was going to do).

dīxī quid factūrus fuissem, I told you what I would (should) have done.

a. Indirect Questions referring to future time take the subjunctive of the First Periphrastic Conjugation:—

prōspiciō quī concursūs futūrī sint (Caecil. 42), I foresee what throngs there will be. [Direct: quī erunt ?]

quid sit futūrum crās, fuge quaerere (Hor. Od. i. 9. 13), forbear to ask what will be on the morrow. [Direct: quid erit or futūrum est ?]

posthāc nōn scrībam ad tē quid factūrus sim, sed quid fēcerim (Att. x. 18), hereafter I shall not write to you what I am going to do, but what I have done. [Direct: quid faciēs (or factūrus eris) ? quid fēcistī ?]

NOTE.—This Periphrastic Future avoids the ambiguity which would be caused by using the Present Subjunctive to refer to future time in such clauses.

b. The Deliberative Subjunctive (§ 444) remains unchanged in an Indirect Question, except sometimes in tense:— SYNTAX: SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES

quō mē vertam nesciō (Clu. 4), I do not know which way to turn. [Direct: quō mē vertam ?]

neque satis cōnstābat quid agerent (B. G. iii. 14), and it was not very clear what they were to do. [Direct: quid agāmus ?]

nec quisquam satis certum habet, quid aut spēret aut timeat (Liv. xxii. 7. 10), nor is any one well assured what he shall hope or fear. [Here the future participle with sit could not be used.]

incertō quid peterent aut vītārent (id. xxviii. 36. 12), since it was doubtful (ablative absolute) what they should seek or shun.

c. Indirect Questions often take the Indicative in early Latin and in poetry:—

vīneam quō in agrō cōnserī oportet sīc observātō (Cato R. R. 6. 4), in what soil a vineyard should be set you must observe thus.

d. Nesciō quis, when used in an indefinite sense (somebody or other), is not followed by the Subjunctive. So also nesciō quō (unde, an, etc.), and the following idiomatic phrases which are practically adverbs:—

mīrum (n=im=irum) quam, marvellously (marvellous how).

mīrum quantum, tremendously (marvellous how much).

immāne quantum, monstrously (monstrous how much).

sānē quam, immensely. valdē quam, enormously.

Examples are:—

nesciō quam

who greatly extol that freedom from pain, whatever it is

mīrum quantum prōfuit (Liv. ii. 1), it helped prodigiously.

ita fātō nesciō quō contigisse arbitror (Fam. xv. 13), I think it happened so by some fatality or other.

nam suōs valdē quam paucōs habet (id. xi. 13 A. 3), for he has uncommonly few of his own.

sānē quam sum gāvīsus (id. xi. 13 A. 4), I was immensely glad.

immāne quantum discrepat (Hor. Od. i. 27. 5), is monstrously at variance.

576. In colloquial usage and in poetry the subject of an In direct Question is often attracted into the main clause as object (Accusative of Anticipation):—

nōstī Mārcellum quam tardus sit (Fam. viii. 10. 3), you know how slow Marcellus is. [For nōstī quam tardus sit Mārcellus. Cf. ``I know thee who thou art.'']

Cf. potestne igitur eārum rērum, quā rē futūrae sint, ūlla esse praesēnsiō (Div. ii. 15), can there be, then, any foreknowledge as to those things, why they will occur ? [A similar use of the Objective Genitive.]

INDIRECT DISCOURSE
NOTE.—In some cases the Object of Anticipation becomes the Subject by a change of voice, and an apparent mixture of relative and interrogative constructions is the result:—

quīdam saepe in parvā pecūniā perspiciuntur quam sint levēs (Lael. 63), it is often seen, in a trifling matter of money, how unprincipled some people are (some people are often seen through, how unprincipled they are).

quem ad modum Pompêium oppūgnārent ā mē indicātī sunt (Leg. Agr. i. 5), it has been shown by me in what way they attacked Pompey (they have been shown by me, how they attacked).

a. An indirect question is occasionally introduced by sī in the sense of whether (like if in English, cf. § 572. b. N.):—

circumfunduntur hostēs sī quem aditum reperīre possent (B. G. vi. 37), the enemy pour round [to see] if they can find entrance.

vīsam sī domī est (Ter. Haut. 170), I will go see if he is at home.

NOTE.—This is strictly a Protasis, but usually no Apodosis is thought of, and the clause is virtually an Indirect Question.

For the Potential Subjunctive with forsitan (originally an Indirect Question), see § 447. a.

INDIRECT DISCOURSE

577. The use of the Accusative and Infinitive in Indirect Discourse (=or=ati=o obl=iqua) is a comparatively late form of speech, developed in the Latin and Greek only, and perhaps separately in each of them. It is wholly wanting in Sanskrit, but some forms like it have grown up in English and German. The essential character of Indirect Discourse is, that the language of some other person than the writer or speaker is compressed into a kind of Substantive Clause, the verb of the main clause becoming Infinitive, while modifying clauses, as well as all hortatory forms of speech, take the Subjunctive. The person of the verb necessarily conforms to the new relation of persons. The construction of Indirect Discourse, however, is not limited to reports of the language of some person other than the speaker; it may be used to express what any one — whether the speaker or some one else — says, thinks, or perceives, whenever that which is said, thought, or perceived is capable of being expressed in the form of a complete sentence. For anything that can be said etc. can also be reported indirectly as well as directly. The use of the Infinitive in the main clause undoubtedly comes from its use as a case-form to complete or modify the action expressed by the verb of saying and its object together. This object in time came to be regarded as, and in fact to all intents became, the subject of the infinitive. A transition state is found in Sanskrit, which, though it has no indirect discourse proper, yet allows an indirect predication after verbs of saying and the like by means of a predicative apposition, in such expressions as ``The maids told the king [that] his daughter [was] bereft of her senses.'' The simple form of indirect statement with the accusative and infinitive was afterwards amplified by introducing dependent or modifying clauses; and in Latin it became a common construction, and could be used to report whole speeches etc., which in other languages would have the direct form. (Compare the style of reporting speeches in English, where only the person and tense are changed.) The Subjunctive in the subordinate clauses of Indirect Discourse has no significance except to make more distinct the fact that these clauses are subordinate; consequently no direct connection has been traced between them and the uses of the mood in simple SYNTAX: SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES sentences. It is probable that the subjunctive in indirect questions (§ 574), in informal indirect discourse (§ 592), and in clauses of the integral part (§ 593) represents the earliest steps of a movement by which the subjunctive became in some degree a mood of subordination. The Subjunctive standing for hortatory forms of speech in Indirect Discourse is simply the usual hortatory subjunctive, with only a change of person and tense (if necessary), as in the reporter's style.

578. A Direct Quotation gives the exact words of the original speaker or writer (=Or=ati=o R=ecta). An Indirect Quotation adapts the words of the speaker or writer to the construction of the sentence in which they are quoted (=Or=ati=o Obl=iqua).
NOTE.—The term Indirect Discourse (=or=ati=o obl=iqua) is used in two senses. In the wider sense it includes all clauses — of whatever kind — which express the words or thought of any person indirectly, that is, in a form different from that in which the person said the words or conceived the thought. In the narrower sense the term Indirect Discourse is restricted to those cases in which some complete proposition is cited in the form of an Indirect Quotation, which may be extended to a narrative or an address of any length, as in the speeches reported by Cæsar and Livy. In this book the term is used in the restricted sense.

FORMAL INDIRECT DISCOURSE

579. Verbs and other expressions of knowing, thinking, telling, and perceiving,²³⁷ govern the Indirect Discourse.
NOTE.—Inquam, said I (etc.) takes the Direct Discourse except in poetry.

Declaratory Sentences in Indirect Discourse

580. In Indirect Discourse the main clause of a Declaratory Sentence is put in the Infinitive with Subject Accusative. All subordinate clauses take the Subjunctive:—

sciō mē paene incrēdibilem rem pollicērī (B. C. iii. 86), I know that I am promising an almost incredible thing. [Direct: polliceor.]

nōn arbitror tē ita sentīre (Fam. x. 26. 2), I do not suppose that you feel thus. [Direct: sentīs.]

spērō mē līberātum [esse] dē metū (Tusc. ii. 67), I trust I have been freed from fear. [Direct: līberātus sum.]

INDIRECT DISCOURSE [dīcit] esse nōn nūllōs quōrum auctōritās plūrimum valeat (B. G. i. 17), he says there are some, whose influence most prevails. [Direct: sunt nōn n=ull=i …valet.]

nisi iūrāsset, scelus sē factūrum [esse] arbitrābātur (Verr. ii. 1. 123), he thought he should incur guilt, unless he should take the oath. [Direct: nisi iūrāverō, faciam.]

a. The verb of saying etc. is often not expressed, but implied in some word or in the general drift of the sentence:—

cōnsulis alterīus nōmen invīsum cīvitātī fuit: nimium Tarquiniōs rēgnō adsuēsse; initium ā Prīscō factum; rēgnāsse dein Ser. Tullium, etc. (Liv. ii. 2), the name of the other consul was hateful to the state; the Tarquins (they thought) had become too much accustomed to royal power, etc. [Here invīsum implies a thought, and this thought is added in the form of Indirect Discourse.]

ōrantēs ut urbibus saltem — iam enim agrōs dēplōrātōs esse — opem senātus ferret (id. xli. 6), praying that the senate would at least bring aid to the cities — for the fields [they said] were already given up as lost.

b. The verb negō, deny, is commonly used in preference to dīcō with a negative:—

[Stōicī] negant quidquam [esse] bonum nisi quod honestum sit (Fin. ii. 68), the Stoics assert that nothing is good but what is right.

c. Verbs of promising, hoping, expecting, threatening, swearing, and the like, regularly take the construction of Indirect Discourse, contrary to the English idiom:—

minātur sēsē abīre (Pl. Asin. 604), he threatens to go away. [Direct: abeō, I am going away.]

spērant sē maximum frūctum esse captūrōs (Lael. 79), they hope to gain the utmost advantage. [Direct: capiēmus.]

spērat sē absolūtum īrī (Sull. 21), he hopes that he shall be acquitted. [Direct: absolvar.]

quem inimīcissimum futūrum esse prōmittō ac spondeō (Mur. 90), who I promise and warrant will be the bitterest of enemies. [Direct: erit.]

dolor fortitūdinem sē dēbilitātūrum minātur (Tusc. v. 76), pain threatens to wear down fortitude. [Direct: dēbilitābō.]

cōnfīdō mē quod velim facile ā tē impetrātūrum (Fam. xi. 16. 1), I trust I shall easily obtain from you what I wish. [Direct: quod volō, impetrābō.]

NOTE.—These verbs, however, often take a simple Complementary Infinitive (§ 456). So regularly in early Latin (except spērō):—²³⁸

pollicentur obsidēs dare (B. G. iv. 21), they promise to give hostages.

prōmīsī dōlium vīnī dare (Pl. Cist. 542), I promised to give a jar of wine.

SYNTAX: SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES
d. Some verbs and expressions may be used either as verbs of saying, or as verbs of commanding, effecting, and the like. These take as their object either an Infinitive with subject accusative or a Substantive clause of Purpose or Result, according to the sense.
1. Infinitive with Subject Accusative (Indirect Discourse):—

laudem sapientiae statuō esse maximam (Fam. v. 13), I hold that the glory of wisdom is the greatest. [Indirect Discourse.]

rēs ipsa monēbat tempus esse (Att. x. 8. 1), the thing itself warned that it was time. [Cf. monēre ut, warn to do something.]

fac mihi esse persuāsum (N. D. i. 75), suppose that I am persuaded of that. [Cf. facere ut, bring it about that.]

hōc volunt persuādēre, nōn interīre animās (B. G. vi. 14), they wish to convince that souls do not perish.

2. Subjunctive (Substantive Clause of Purpose or Result):—

statuunt ut decem mīlia hominum mittantur (B. G. vii. 21), they resolve that 10,000 men shall be sent. [Purpose clause (cf. § 563).]

huic persuādet utī ad hostīs trānseat (id. iii. 18), he persuades him to pass over to the enemy.

Pompêius suīs praedīxerat ut Caesaris impetum exciperent (B. C. iii. 92), Pompey had instructed his men beforehand to await Cæsar's attack.

dēnūntiāvit ut essent animō parātī (id. iii. 86), he bade them be alert and steadfast (ready in spirit).

NOTE.—The infinitive with subject accusative in this construction is Indirect Discourse, and is to be distinguished from the simple infinitive sometimes found with these verbs instead of a subjunctive clause (§ 563. d).

581. The Subject Accusative of the Infinitive is regularly expressed in Indirect Discourse, even if it is wanting in the direct:

ōrātor sum, I am an orator ; dīcit sē esse ōrātōrem, he says he is an orator.

NOTE 1.—But the subject is often omitted if easily understood:—

īgnōscere imprūdentiae dīxit

he said he pardoned their rashness

eadem ab aliīs quaerit: reperit esse vēra (id. i. 18), he inquires about these same things from others; he finds that they are true.

NOTE 2.—After a relative, or quam (than), if the verb would be the same as that of the main clause, it is usually omitted, and its subject is attracted into the accusative:—

tē suspicor eīsdem rēbus quibus mē ipsum commovērī (Cat. M. 1), I suspect that you are disturbed by the same things as I.

cōnfīdō tamen haec quoque tibi nōn minus grāta quam ipsōs librōs futūra (Plin. Ep. iii. 5. 20), I trust that these facts too will be no less pleasing to you than the books themselves.

NOTE 3.—In poetry, by a Greek idiom, a Predicate Noun or Adjective in the indirect discourse sometimes agrees with the subject of the main verb:—

vir bonus et sapiēns ait esse parātus (Hor. Ep. i. 7. 22), a good and wise man says he is prepared, etc. [In prose: ait sē esse parātum.]

sēnsit mediōs dēlāpsus in hostīs (Aen. ii. 377), he found himself fallen among the foe. [In prose: sē esse dēlāpsum.]

INDIRECT DISCOURSE

582. When the verb of saying etc. is passive, the construction may be either Personal or Impersonal. But the Personal construction is more common and is regularly used in the tenses of incomplete action:—

beātē vīxisse videor (Lael. 15), I seem to have lived happily.

Epamīnōndās fidibus praeclārē cecinisse dīcitur (Tusc. i. 4), Epaminondas is said to have played excellently on the lyre.

multī idem factūrī esse dīcuntur (Fam. xvi. 12. 4), many are said to be about to do the same thing. [Active: dīcunt multōs factūrōs (esse).]

prīmī trāduntur arte quādam verba vīnxisse (Or. 40), they first are related to have joined words with a certain skill.

Bibulus audiēbātur esse in Syriā (Att. v. 18), it was heard that Bibulus was in Syria (Bibulus was heard, etc.). [Direct: Bibulus est.]

cēterae Illyricī legiōnēs secūtūrae spērābantur (Tac. H. ii. 74), the rest of the legions of Illyricum were expected to follow.

vidēmur enim quiētūrī fuisse, nisi essēmus lacessītī (De Or. ii. 230), it seems that we should have kept quiet, if we had not been molested (we seem, etc.). [Direct: quiēssēmus …nisi essēmus lacessītī.]

NOTE.—The poets and later writers extend the personal use of the passive to verbs which are not properly verba sentiend=i etc.: as,— colligor dominae placuisse (Ov. Am. ii. 6. 61), it is gathered [from this memorial] that I pleased my mistress.

a. In the compound tenses of verbs of saying etc., the impersonal construction is more common, and with the gerundive is regular:—

trāditum est etiam Homērum caecum fuisse (Tusc. v. 114), it is a tradition, too, that Homer was blind.

ubi tyrannus est, ibi nōn vitiōsam, sed dīcendum est plānē nūllam esse rem pūblicam (Rep. iii. 43), where there is a tyrant, it must be said, not that the commonwealth is evil, but that it does not exist at all.

NOTE.—An indirect narrative begun in the personal construction may be continued with the Infinitive and Accusative (as De Or. ii. 299; Liv. v. 41. 9).

Subordinate Clauses in Indirect Discourse

583. A Subordinate Clause merely explanatory, or containing statements which are regarded as true independently of the quotation, takes the Indicative:—

quis neget haec omnia quae vidēmus deōrum potestāte administrārī (Cat. iii. 21), who can deny that all these things we see are ruled by the power of the gods ?

cûius ingeniō putābat ea quae gesserat posse celebrārī (Arch. 20), by whose genius he thought that those deeds which he had done could be celebrated. [Here the fact expressed by quae gesserat, though not explanatory, is felt to be true without regard to the quotation: quae gessisset would mean, what Marius claimed to have done.]

SYNTAX: SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES
NOTE.—Such a clause in the indicative is not regarded as a part of the Indirect Discourse; but it often depends merely upon the feeling of the writer whether he shall use the Indicative or the Subjunctive (cf. §§ 591–593).

a. A subordinate clause in Indirect Discourse occasionally takes the Indicative when the fact is emphasized:—

factum êius hostis perīculum …cum, Cimbrīs et Teutonīs …pulsīs, nōn minōrem laudem exercitus quam ipse imperātor meritus vidēbātur (B. G. i. 40), that a trial of this enemy had been made when, on the defeat of the Cimbri and Teutoni, the army seemed to have deserved no less credit than the commander himself.

b. Clauses introduced by a relative which is equivalent to a demonstrative with a conjunction are not properly subordinate, and hence take the Accusative and Infinitive in Indirect Discourse (see § 308. f):—

Mārcellus requīsīsse dīcitur Archimēdem illum, quem cum audīsset interfectum permolestē tulisse (Verr. iv. 131), Marcellus is said to have sought for Archimedes, and when he heard that he was slain, to have been greatly distressed. [quem ēt eum.]

cēnsent ūnum quemque nostrum mundī esse partem, ex quō [ ēt ex eō] illud nātūrā cōnsequī (Fin. iii. 64), they say that each one of us is a part of the universe, from which this naturally follows.

NOTE.—Really subordinate clauses occasionally take the accusative and infinitive: as, — quem ad modum sī n=on d=ed=atur obses pr=o rupt=o foedus sē habitūrum, s=ic d=editam inviol=atam ad su=os remiss=urum (Liv. ii. 13), [he says] as in case the hostage is not given up he shall consider the treaty as broken, so if given up he will return her unharmed to her friends.

c. The infinitive construction is regularly continued after a comparative with quam:—

addit sē prius occīsum īrī ab eō quam mē violātum īrī (Att. ii. 20. 2), he adds that he himself will be killed by him, before I shall be injured.

nōnne adfīrmāvī quidvīs mē potius perpessūrum quam ex ītaliā exitūrum (Fam. ii. 16. 3), did I not assert that I would endure anything rather than leave Italy ?

NOTE.—The subjunctive with or without ut also occurs with quam (see § 535. c).

Tenses of the Infinitive in Indirect Discourse

584. The Present, the Perfect, or the Future Infinitive²³⁹ is used in Indirect Discourse, according as the time indicated is present, past, or future with reference to the verb of saying etc. by which the Indirect Discourse is introduced:— TENSES IN INDIRECT DISCOURSE

cadō, I am falling. dīcit sē cadere, he says he is falling. dīxit sē cadere, he said he was falling. cadēbam, I was falling; cecidī, I fell, have fallen; cecideram, I had fallen. dīcit sē cecidisse, he says he was falling, fell, has fallen, had fallen. dīxit sē cecidisse, he said he fell, had fallen. cadam, I shall fall. dīcit sē cāsūrum [esse], he says he shall fall. dīxit sē cāsūrum [esse], he said he should fall. ceciderō, I shall have fallen. dīcit fore ut ceciderit [rare], he says he shall have fallen. dīxit fore ut cecidisset [rare], he said he should have fallen. a. All varieties of past time are usually expressed in Indirect Discourse by the Perfect Infinitive, which may stand for the Imperfect, the Perfect, or the Pluperfect Indicative of the Direct.
NOTE.—Continued or repeated action in past time is sometimes expressed by the Present Infinitive, which in such cases stands for the Imperfect Indicative of the Direct Discourse and is often called the Imperfect Infinitive.

This is the regular construction after meminī when referring to a matter of actual experience or observation: as,— tē meminī haec dīcere, I remember your saying this

dīxistī

dīcēbās

b. The present infinitive posse often has a future sense:—

totīus Galliae sēsē potīrī posse spērant (B. G. i. 3), they hope that they shall be able to get possession of all Gaul.

Tenses of the Subjunctive in Indirect Discourse

585. The tenses of the Subjunctive in Indirect Discourse follow the rule for the Sequence of Tenses (§ 482). They depend for their sequence on the verb of saying etc. by which the Indirect Discourse is introduced.

Thus in the sentence, dīxit sē Rōmam itūrum ut cōnsulem vidēret, he said he should go to Rome in order that he might see the consul, vidēret follows the sequence of dīxit without regard to the Future Infinitive, itūrum [esse], on which it directly depends.

NOTE.—This rule applies to the subjunctive in subordinate clauses, to that which stands for the imperative etc. (see examples, § 588), and to that in questions (§ 586).

a. A subjunctive depending on a Perfect Infinitive is often in the Imperfect or Pluperfect, even if the verb of saying etc. is in a primary tense (cf. § 485. j); so regularly when these tenses would have been used in Direct Discourse:— SYNTAX: SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES

Tarquinium dīxisse ferunt tum exsulantem sē intellēxisse quōs fīdōs amīcōs habuisset (Lael. 53), they tell us that Tarquin said that then in his exile he had found out what faithful friends he had had. [Here the main verb of saying, ferunt, is primary, but the time is carried back by dīxisse and intellēxisse, and the sequence then becomes secondary.]

tantum prōfēcisse vidēmur ut ā Graecīs nē verbōrum quidem cōpiā vincerēmur (N. D. i. 8), we seem to have advanced so far that even in abundance of words we ARE not surpassed by the Greeks.

NOTE 1.—The proper sequence may be seen, in each case, by turning the Perfect Infinitive into that tense of the Indicative which it represents. Thus, if it stands for an imperfect or an historical perfect, the sequence will be secondary; if it stands for a perfect definite, the sequence may be either primary or secondary (§ 485. a).

NOTE 2.—The so-called imperfect infinitive after meminī (§ 584. a. N.) takes the secondary sequence: as,— ad m=e adīre qu=osdam meminī, qu=i dīcerent (Fam. iii. 10. 6), I remember that some persons visited me, to tell me, etc.

b. The Present and Perfect Subjunctive are often used in dependent clauses of the Indirect Discourse even when the verb of saying etc. is in a secondary tense:—

dīcēbant …totidem Nerviōs (pollic=er=i) qu=i longissim=e absint (B. G. ii. 4), they said that the Nervii, who live farthest off, promised as many.

NOTE.—This construction comes from the tendency of language to refer all time in narration to the time of the speaker (repraesent=ati=o). In the course of a long passage in the Indirect Discourse the tenses of the subjunctive often vary, sometimes following the sequence, and sometimes affected by repraesent=ati=o. Examples may be seen in B. G. i. 13, vii. 20, etc.

Certain constructions are never affected by repraesent=ati=o. Such are the Imperfect and Pluperfect Subjunctive with cum temporal, antequam, and priusquam.

Questions in Indirect Discourse

586. A Question in Indirect Discourse may be either in the Subjunctive or in the Infinitive with Subject Accusative. A real question, asking for an answer, is generally put in the Subjunctive ; a rhetorical question, asked for effect and implying its own answer, is put in the Infinitive:—

quid sibi vellet ? cūr in suās possessiōnēs venīret (B. G. i. 44), what did he want ? why did he come into his territories ? [Real question. Direct: quid vīs ? cūr venīs ?]

num recentium iniūriārum memoriam [sē] dēpōnere posse (id. i. 14), could he lay aside the memory of recent wrongs ? [Rhetorical Question. Direct: num possum ?]

quem sīgnum datūrum fugientibus ? quem ausūrum Alexandrō succēdere (Q. C. iii. 5. 7), who will give the signal on the retreat ? who will dare succeed Alexander ? [Rhetorical. Direct: quis dabit …audēbit.]

COMMANDS IN INDIRECT DISCOURSE
NOTE 1.—No sharp line can be drawn between the Subjunctive and the Infinitive in questions in the Indirect Discourse. Whether the question is to be regarded as rhetorical or real often depends merely on the writer's point of view:—

utrum partem rēgnī petītūrum esse, an tōtum ēreptūrum (Liv. xlv. 19. 15), will you ask part of the regal power (he said), or seize the whole ?

quid tandem praetōrī faciendum fuisse (id. xxxi. 48), what, pray, ought a prætor to have done ?

quid repente factum [esse] cūr, etc. (id. xxxiv. 54), what had suddenly happened, that, etc.?

NOTE 2.—Questions coming immediately after a verb of asking are treated as Indirect Questions and take the Subjunctive (see § 574). This is true even when the verb of asking serves also to introduce a passage in the Indirect Discourse. The question may be either real or rhetorical. See quaesīvit, etc. (Liv. xxxvii. 15).

For the use of tenses, see § 585.

587. A Deliberative Subjunctive (§ 444) in the Direct Discourse is always retained in the Indirect:—

cūr aliquōs ex suīs āmitteret (B. C. i. 72), why (thought he) should he lose some of his men ? [Direct: cūr āmittam ?]

Commands in Indirect Discourse

588. All Imperative forms of speech take the Subjunctive in Indirect Discourse:—

reminīscerētur veteris incommodī (B. G. i. 13), remember (said he) the ancient disaster. [Direct: reminīscere.]

fīnem faciat (id. i. 20), let him make an end. [Direct: fac.]

ferrent opem, adiuvārent (Liv. ii. 6), let them bring aid, let them help.

a. This rule applies not only to the Imperative of the direct discourse, but to the Hortatory and the Optative Subjunctive as well.
NOTE 1.—Though these subjunctives stand for independent clauses of the direct discourse, they follow the rule for the sequence of tenses, being in fact dependent on the verb of saying etc. (cf. §§ 483, 585).

NOTE 2.—A Prohibition in the Indirect Discourse is regularly expressed by nē with the present or imperfect subjunctive, even when nōlī with the infinitive would be used in the Direct: as, — nē perturbārentur (B. G. vii. 29), do not (he said) be troubled. [Direct: nōlīte perturbārī. But sometimes nōllet is found in Indirect Discourse.]

Conditions in Indirect Discourse

589. Conditional sentences in Indirect Discourse are expressed as follows:—
1. The Protasis, being a subordinate clause, is always in the Subjunctive.
2. The Apodosis, if independent and not hortatory or optative, is always in some form of the Infinitive. SYNTAX: SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES
a. The Present Subjunctive in the apodosis of less vivid future conditions (§ 516. b) becomes the Future Infinitive like the Future Indicative in the apodosis of more vivid future conditions. Thus there is no distinction between more and less vivid future conditions in the Indirect Discourse. Examples of Conditional Sentences in Indirect Discourse are —
1. Simple Present Condition (§ 515):—

(dīxit) sī ipse populō Rōmānō nōn praescrīberet quem ad modum suō iūre ūterētur, nōn oportēre sēsē ā populō Rōmānō in suō iūre impedīrī (B. G. i. 36), he said that if he did not dictate to the Roman people how they should use their rights, he ought not to be interfered with by the Roman people in the exercise of his rights. [Direct: sī nōn praescrībō …nōn oportet.]

praedicāvit …sī pāce ūtī velint, inīquum esse, etc. (id. i. 44), he asserted that if they wished to enjoy peace, it was unfair, etc. [Direct: sī volunt …est. Present tense kept by repraesent=ati=o (§ 585. b. N.).]

2. Simple Past Condition (§ 515):—

nōn dīcam nē illud quidem, sī maximē in culpā fuerit Apollōnius, tamen in hominem honestissimae cīvitātis honestissimum tam graviter animadvertī, causā indictā, nōn oportuisse (Verr. v. 20), I will not say this either, that, even if Apollonius was very greatly in fault, still an honorable man from an honorable state ought not to have been punished so severely without having his case heard. [Direct: sī fuit …nōn oportuit.]

3. Future Conditions (§ 516):—

(dīxit) quod sī praetereā nēmō sequātur, tamen sē cum sōlā decimā legiōne itūrum (B. G. i. 40), but if nobody else should follow, still he would go with the tenth legion alone. [Direct: sī sequētur …ībō. Present tense by repraesent=ati=o (§ 585. b. N.).]

Haeduīs sē obsidēs redditūrum nōn esse, neque eīs …bellum illātūrum, sī in eō manērent, quod convēnisset, stipendiumque quotannīs penderent: sī id nōn fēcissent, longē eīs frāternum nōmen populī Rōmānī āfutūrum (id. i. 36), he said that he would not give up the hostages to the Haedui, but would not make war upon them if they observed the agreement which had been made, and paid tribute yearly; but that, if they should not do this, the name of brothers to the Roman people would be far from aiding them. [Direct: reddam …īnferam …sī manēbunt …pendent: sī nōn fēcerint …aberit.]

id Datamēs ut audīvit, sēnsit, sī in turbam exīsset ab homine tam necessāriō sē relictum, futūrum [esse] ut cēterī cōnsilium sequantur (Nep. Dat. 6), when Datames heard this, he saw that, if it should get abroad that he had been abandoned by a man so closely connected with him, everybody else would follow his example. [Direct: sī exierit …sequentur.]

CONDITIONS IN INDIRECT DISCOURSE

(putāvērunt) nisi mē cīvitāte expulissent, obtinēre sē nōn posse licentiam cupiditātum suārum (Att. x. 4), they thought that unless they drove me out of the state, they could not have free play for their desires. [Direct: nisi (Cicerōnem) expulerimus, obtinēre nōn poterimus.]

b. In changing a Condition contrary to fact (§ 517) into the Indirect Discourse, the following points require notice:—
1. The Protasis always remains unchanged in tense.
2. The Apodosis, if active, takes a peculiar infinitive form, made by combining the Participle in -ūrus with fuisse.
3. If the verb of the Apodosis is passive or has no supine stem, the periphrasis futūrum fuisse ut (with the Imperfect Subjunctive) must be used.
4. An Indicative in the Apodosis becomes a Perfect Infinitive. Examples are:—

nec sē superstitem fīliae futūrum fuisse, nisi spem ulcīscendae mortis êius in auxiliō commīlitōnum habuisset (Liv. iii. 50. 7), and that he should not now be a survivor, etc., unless he had had hope, etc. [Direct: nōn superstes essem, nisi habuissem.]

illud Asia cōgitet, nūllam ā sē neque bellī externī neque discordiārum domesticārum calamitātem āfutūram fuisse, sī hōc imperiō nōn tenērētur (Q. Fr. i. 1. 34), let Asia (personified) think of this, that no disaster, etc., would not be hers, if she were not held by this government. [Direct: abesset, sī nōn tenērer.]

quid inimīcitiārum crēditis [mē] exceptūrum fuisse, sī īnsontīs lacessīssem (Q. C. vi. 10. 18), what enmities do you think I should have incurred, if I had wantonly assailed the innocent? [excēpissem …sī lacessīssem.]

invītum sē dīcere, nec dictūrum fuisse, nī cāritās reī pūblicae vinceret (Liv. ii. 2), that he spoke unwillingly and should not have spoken, did not love for the state prevail. [Direct: nec dīxissem …nī vinceret.]

nisi eō tempore quīdam nūntiī dē Caesaris victōriā …essent allātī, exīstimābant plērīque futūrum fuisse utī [oppidum] āmitterētur (B. C. iii. 101), most people thought that unless at that time reports of Cæsar's victory had been brought, the town would have been lost. [Direct: nisi essent allātī …āmissum esset.]

quōrum sī aetās potuisset esse longinquior, futūrum fuisse ut omnibus perfectīs artibus hominum vīta ērudīrētur (Tusc. iii. 69), if life could have been longer, human existence would have been embellished by every art in its perfection. [Direct: sī potuisset …ērudīta esset.]

at plērīque exīstimant, sī ācrius īnsequī voluisset, bellum eō diē potuisse fīnīre (B. C. iii. 51), but most people think that, if he had chosen to follow up the pursuit more vigorously, he could have ended the war on that day. [Direct: sī voluisset …potuit.]

Caesar respondit …sī alicûius iniūriae sibi cōnscius fuisset, nōn fuisse difficile cavēre (B. G. i. 14), Cæsar replied that if [the Roman people] has been aware of any wrong act, it would not have been hard for them to take precautions. [Direct: sī fuisset, nōn difficile fuit (§ 517. c).]

SYNTAX: SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES
NOTE 1.—In Indirect Discourse Present Conditions contrary to fact are not distinguished in the apodosis from Past Conditions contrary to fact, but the protasis may keep them distinct.

NOTE 2.—The periphrasis futūrum fuisse ut is sometimes used from choice when there is no necessity for resorting to it, but not in Cæsar or Cicero.

NOTE 3.—Very rarely the Future Infinitive is used in the Indirect Discourse to express the Apodosis of a Present Condition contrary to fact. Only four or five examples of this use occur in classic authors: as,— Titurius cl=am=abat s=i Caesar adesset neque Carnut=es, etc., neque Ebur=on=es tant=a cum contempti=one nostra ad castra ventūrōs esse (B. G. v. 29), Titurius cried out that if Cæsar were present, neither would the Carnutes, etc., nor would the Eburones be coming to our camp with such contempt. [Direct: sī adesset …venīrent.]

590. The following example illustrates some of the foregoing principles in a connected address:—

INDIRECT DISCOURSE

Sī pācem populus Rōmānus cum Helvētiīs faceret, in eam partem itūrōs atque ibi futūrōs Helvētiōs, ubi eōs Caesar cōnstituisset atque esse voluisset: sīn bellō persequī persevērāret, reminīscerētur et veteris incommodī populī Rōmānī, et prīstinae virtūtis Helvētiōrum. Quod imprōvīsō ūnum pāgum adortus esset, cum eī quī flūmen trānsīssent suīs auxilium ferre nōn possent, nē ob eam rem aut suae māgnō opere virtūtī tribueret, aut ipsōs dēspiceret: sē ita ā patribus mâiōribusque suīs didicisse, ut magis virtūte quam dolō contenderent, aut īnsidiīs nīterentur. Quā rē nē committeret, ut is locus ubi cōnstitissent ex calamitāte populī Rōmānī et interneciōne exercitūs nōmen caperet, aut memoriam prōderet. — B. G. i. 13.

DIRECT DISCOURSE

Sī pācem populus Rōmānus cum Helvētiīs faciet, in eam partem ībunt atque ibi erunt Helvētiī, ubi eōs tū cōnstitueris atque esse volueris: sīn bellō persequī persevērābis, reminīscere [inquit] et veteris incommodī populī Rōmānī, et prīstinae virtūtis Helvētiōrum. Quod imprōvīsō ūnum pāgum adortus es, cum eī quī flūmen trānsierant suīs auxilium ferre nōn possent, nē ob eam rem aut tuae māgnō opere virtūtī tribueris, aut nōs dēspexeris: nōs ita ā patribus mâiōribusque nostrīs didicimus, ut magis virtūte quam dolō contendāmus, aut īnsidiīs nītāmur. Quā rē nōlī committere, ut hīc locus ubi cōnstitimus ex calamitāte populī Rōmānī et interneciōne exercitūs nōmen capiat, aut memoriam prōdat. *endminipage

INTERMEDIATE CLAUSES

591. A Subordinate clause takes the Subjunctive —

1. When it expresses the thought of some other person than the speaker or writer

(Informal Indirect Discourse), or 2. When it is an integral part of a Subjunctive clause or equivalent Infinitive (Attraction).²⁴⁰ INFORMAL INDIRECT DISCOURSE

Informal Indirect Discourse

592. A Subordinate Clause takes the Subjunctive when it expresses the thought of some other person than the writer or speaker:—

1. When the clause depends upon another containing a wish, a command, or a question, expressed indirectly, though not strictly in the form of Indirect Discourse:—

animal sentit quid sit quod deceat (Off. i. 14), an animal feels what it is that is fit.

huic imperat quās possit adeat cīvitātēs (B. G. iv. 21), he orders him to visit what states he can.

hunc sibi ex animō scrūpulum, quī sē diēs noctīsque stimulat ac pungit, ut ēvellātis postulat (Rosc. Am. 6), he begs you to pluck from his heart this doubt that goads and stings him day and night. [Here the relative clause is not a part of the Purpose expressed in ēvellātis, but is an assertion made by the subject of postulat.]

2. When the main clause of a quotation is merged in the verb of saying, or some modifier of it:—

sī quīd dē hīs rēbus dīcere vellet, fēcī potestātem (Cat. iii. 11), if he wished to say anything about these matters, I gave him a chance.

tulit dē caede quae in Appiā viā facta esset (Mil. 15), he passed a law concerning the murder which (in the language of the bill) took place in the Appian Way.

nisi restituissent statuās, vehementer minātur (Verr. ii. 162), he threatens them violently unless they should restore the statues. [Here the main clause, ``that he will inflict punishment,'' is contained in minātur.]

iīs auxilium suum pollicitus sī ab Suēbīs premerentur (B. G. iv. 19), he promised them his aid if they should be molested by the Suevi. [= pollicitus sē auxilium lātūrum, etc.]

prohibitiō tollendī, nisi pactus esset, vim adhibēbat pactiōnī (Verr. iii. 37), the forbidding to take away unless he came to terms gave force to the bargain.

3. When a reason or an explanatory fact is introduced by a relative or by quod (rarely quia) (see § 540):—

Paetus omnīs librōs quōs frāter suus relīquisset mihi dōnāvit (Att. ii. 1. 12), Pætus presented to me all the books which (he said) his brother had left.

NOTE.—Under this head even what the speaker himself thought under other circumstances may have the Subjunctive. So also with quod even the verb of saying may be in the Subjunctive (§ 540. N. 2). Here belong also nōn quia, nōn quod, introducing a reason expressly to deny it. (See § 540. N. 3.)
SYNTAX: INTERMEDIATE CLAUSES

Subjunctive of Integral Part (Attraction)

593. A clause depending upon a Subjunctive clause or an equivalent Infinitive will itself take the Subjunctive if regarded as an integral part of that clause:—²⁴¹

imperat, dum rēs iūdicētur, hominem adservent: cum iūdicāta sit, ad sē ut addūcant (Verr. iii. 55), he orders them, till the affair should be decided, to keep the man ; when it is judged, to bring him to him.

etenim quis tam dissolūtō animō est, quī haec cum videat, tacēre ac neglegere possit (Rosc. Am. 32), for who is so reckless of spirit that, when he sees these things, he can keep silent and pass them by?

mōs est Athēnīs laudārī in cōntiōne eōs quī sint in proeliīs interfectī (Or. 151), it is the custom at Athens for those to be publicly eulogized who have been slain in battle. [Here laudārī is equivalent to ut laudentur.]

a. But a dependent clause may be closely connected grammatically with a Subjunctive or Infinitive clause, and still take the Indicative, if it is not regarded as a necessary logical part of that clause:—

quōdam modō postulat ut, quem ad modum est, sīc etiam appellētur, tyrannus (Att. x. 412), in a manner he demands that as he is, so he may be called, a tyrant.

nātūra fert ut eīs faveāmus quī eadem perīcula quibus nōs perfūnctī sumus ingrediuntur (Mur. 4), nature prompts us to feel friendly towards those who are entering on the same dangers which we have passed through.

nē hostēs, quod tantum multitūdine poterant, suōs circumvenīre possent (B. G. ii. 8), lest the enemy, because they were so strong in numbers, should be able to surround his men.

sī mea in tē essent officia sōlum tanta quanta magis ā tē ipsō praedicārī quam ā mē ponderārī solent, verēcundius ā tē …peterem (Fam. ii. 6), if my good services to you were only so great as they are wont rather to be called by you than to be estimated by me, I should, etc.

NOTE 1.—The use of the Indicative in such clauses sometimes serves to emphasize the fact, as true independently of the statement contained in the subjunctive or infinitive clause. But in many cases no such distinction is perceptible.

NOTE 2.—It is often difficult to distinguish between Informal Indirect Discourse and the Integral Part. Thus in imperāvit ut ea fierent quae opus essent, essent may stand for sunt, and then will be Indirect Discourse, being a part of the thought, but not a part of the order; or it may stand for erunt, and then will be Integral Part, being a part of the order itself. The difficulty of making the distinction in such cases is evidence of the close relationship between these two constructions.
SYNTAX: IMPORTANT RULES

594. IMPORTANT RULES OF SYNTAX

1. A noun used to describe another, and denoting the same person or thing, agrees with it in Case (§ 282).

2. Adjectives, Adjective Pronouns, and Participles agree with their nouns in Gender, Number, and Case (§ 286).

3. Superlatives (more rarely Comparatives) denoting order and succession — also medius, (cēterus), reliquus — usually designate not what object, but what part of it, is meant (§ 293).

4. The Personal Pronouns have two forms for the genitive plural, that in -um being used partitively, and that in -ī oftenest objectively (§ 295. b).

5. The Reflexive Pronoun (sē), and usually the corresponding possessive (suus), are used in the predicate to refer to the subject of the sentence or clause (§ 299).

6. To express Possession and similar ideas the Possessive Pronouns must be used, not the genitive of the personal or reflexive pronouns (§ 302. a).

7. A Possessive Pronoun or an Adjective implying possession may take an appositive in the genitive case agreeing in gender, number, and case with an implied noun or pronoun (§ 302. e).

8. A Relative Pronoun agrees with its Antecedent in Gender and Number, but its Case depends on its construction in the clause in which it stands (§ 305).

9. A Finite Verb agrees with its Subject in Number and Person (§ 316).

10. Adverbs are used to modify Verbs, Adjectives, and other Adverbs (§ 321).

11. A Question of simple fact, requiring the answer yes or no, is formed by adding the enclitic -ne to the emphatic word (§ 332).

12. When the enclitic -ne is added to a negative word,— as in nōnne,— an affirmative answer is expected. The particle num suggests a negative answer (§ 332. b).

13. The Subject of a finite verb is in the Nominative (§ 339).

14. The Vocative is the case of direct address (§ 340).

15. A noun used to limit or define another, and not meaning the same person or thing, is put in the Genitive (§ 342).

16. The Possessive Genitive denotes the person or thing to which an object, quality, feeling, or action belongs (§ 343).

SYNTAX: IMPORTANT RULES

17. The genitive may denote the Substance or Material of which a thing consists (§ 344).

18. The genitive is used to denote Quality, but only when the quality is modified by an adjective (§ 345).

19. Words denoting a part are followed by the Genitive of the whole to which the part belongs (Partitive Genitive, § 346).

20. Nouns of action, agency, and feeling govern the Genitive of the object (Objective Genitive, § 348).

21. Adjectives denoting desire, knowledge, memory, fulness, power, sharing, guilt, and their opposites ; participles in -ns when used as adjectives; and verbals in -āx, govern the Genitive (§ 349. a, b, c).

22. Verbs of remembering and forgetting take either the Accusative or the Genitive of the object (§ 350).

23. Verbs of reminding take with the Accusative of the person a Genitive of the thing (§ 351).

24. Verbs of accusing, condemning, and acquitting take the Genitive of the charge or penalty (§ 352).

25. The Dative is used of the object indirectly affected by an action (Indirect Object, § 361).

26. Many verbs signifying to favor, help, please, trust, and their contraries ; also, to believe, persuade, command, obey, serve, resist, envy, threaten, pardon, and spare, take the Dative (§ 367).

27. Many verbs compounded with ad, ante, con, in, inter, ob, post, prae, prō, sub, super, and some with circum, admit the Dative of the indirect object (§ 370).

28. The Dative is used with esse and similar words to denote Possession (§ 373).

29. The Dative of the Agent is used with the Gerundive, to denote the person on whom the necessity rests (§ 374).

30. The Dative often depends, not on any particular word, but on the general meaning of the sentence (Dative of Reference, § 376).

31. Many verbs of taking away and the like take the Dative (especially of a person) instead of the Ablative of Separation (§ 381).

32. The Dative is used to denote the Purpose or End, often with another Dative of the person or thing affected (§ 382).

33. The Dative is used with adjectives (and a few adverbs) of fitness nearness, likeness, service, inclination, and their opposites (§ 384).

SYNTAX: IMPORTANT RULES 34. The Direct Object of a transitive verb is put in the Accusative (§ 387).

35. An intransitive verb often takes the Accusative of a noun of kindred meaning, usually modified by an adjective or in some other manner (Cognate Accusative, § 390).

36. Verbs of naming, choosing, appointing, making, esteeming, showing, and the like, may take a Predicate Accusative along with the direct object (§ 393).

37. Transitive verbs compounded with prepositions sometimes take (in addition to the direct object) a Secondary Object, originally governed by the preposition (§ 394).

38. Some verbs of asking and teaching may take two Accusatives, one of the Person, and the other of the Thing (§ 396).

39. The subject of an Infinitive is in the Accusative (§ 397. e).

40. Duration of Time and Extent of Space are expressed by the Accusative (§§ 424. c, 425).

41. Words signifying separation or privation are followed by the Ablative (Ablative of Separation, § 400).

42. The Ablative, usually with a preposition, is used to denote the source from which anything is derived or the material of which it consists (§ 403).

43. The Ablative, with or without a preposition, is used to express cause (§ 404).

44. The Voluntary Agent after a passive verb is expressed by the Ablative with ā or ab (§ 405).

45. The Comparative degree is often followed by the Ablative signifying than (§ 406).

46. The Comparative may be followed by quam, than. When quam is used, the two things compared are put in the same case (§ 407).

47. The Ablative is used to denote the means or instrument of an action (§ 409).

48. The deponents, ūtor, fruor, fungor, potior, and vēscor, with several of their compounds, govern the Ablative (§ 410).

49. Opus and ūsus, signifying need, are followed by the Ablative (§ 411).

50. The manner of an action is denoted by the Ablative, usually with cum unless a limiting adjective is used with the noun (§ 412).

SYNTAX: IMPORTANT RULES 51. Accompaniment is denoted by the Ablative, regularly with cum (§ 413).

52. With Comparatives and words implying comparison the Ablative is used to denote the degree of difference (§ 414).

53. The quality of a thing is denoted by the Ablative with an adjective or genitive Modifier (§ 415).

54. The price of a thing is put in the Ablative (§ 416).

55. The Ablative of Specification denotes that in respect to which anything is or is done (§ 418).

56. The adjectives dīgnus and indīgnus take the Ablative (§ 418. b).

57. A noun or pronoun, with a participle in agreement, may be put in the Ablative to define the time or circumstances of an action (Ablative Absolute, § 419).

An adjective, or a second noun, may take the place of the participle in the ablative absolute construction (§ 419. a).

58. Time when, or within which, is denoted by the Ablative ; time how long by the Accusative (§ 423).

59. Relations of Place are expressed as follows:—

1. The place from which, by the Ablative with ab, dē, ex.

2. The place to which (or end of motion), by the Accusative with ad or in.

3. The place where, by the Ablative with in (Locative Ablative). (§ 426.)

60. With names of towns and small islands, and with domus and rūs, the relations of place are expressed as follows:—

1. The place from which, by the Ablative without a preposition.

2. The place to which, by the Accusative without a preposition.

3. The place where, by the Locative. (§ 427.)

61. The Hortatory Subjunctive is used in the present tense to express an exhortation, a command, or a concession (§§ 439, 440).

62. The Optative Subjunctive is used to express a wish. The present tense denotes the wish as possible, the imperfect as unaccomplished in present time, the pluperfect as unaccomplished in past time (§ 441).

63. The Subjunctive is used in questions implying (1) doubt, indignation, or (2) an impossibility of the thing's being done (Deliberative Subjunctive, § 444).

SYNTAX: IMPORTANT RULES 64. The Potential Subjunctive is used to suggest an action as possible or conceivable (§ 446).

65. The Imperative is used in commands and entreaties (§ 448).

66. Prohibition is regularly expressed in classic prose (1) by nōlī with the Infinitive, (2) by cavē with the Present Subjunctive, (3) by nē with the Perfect Subjunctive (§ 450).

67. The Infinitive, with or without a subject accusative, may be used with est and similar verbs (1) as the Subject, (2) in Apposition with the subject, or (3) as a Predicate Nominative (§ 452).

68. Verbs which imply another action of the same subject to complete their meaning take the Infinitive without a subject accusative (Complementary Infinitive, § 456).

69. The Infinitive, with subject accusative, is used with verbs and other expressions of knowing, thinking, telling, and perceiving (Indirect Discourse, see § 459).

70. The Infinitive is often used for the Imperfect Indicative in narration, and takes a subject in the Nominative (Historical Infinitive, § 463).

71. SEQUENCE OF TENSES. In complex sentences, a primary tense in the main clause is followed by the Present or Perfect Subjunctive in the dependent clause; a secondary tense by the Imperfect or Pluperfect (§ 483).

72. Participles denote time as present, past, or future with respect to the time of the verb in their clause (§ 489).

73. The Gerund and the Gerundive are used, in the oblique cases, in many of the constructions of nouns (§§ 501–507).

74. The Supine in -um is used after verbs of motion to express Purpose (§ 509).

75. The Supine in -ū is used with a few adjectives and with the nouns fās, nefās, and opus, to denote Specification (§ 510).

76. Dum, modo, dummodo, and tantum ut, introducing a Proviso, take the Subjunctive (§ 528).

77. Final clauses take the Subjunctive introduced by ut (utī), negative nē (ut nē), or by a Relative Pronoun or Relative Adverb (§ 531).

78. A Relative Clause with the Subjunctive is often used to indicate a characteristic of the antecedent, especially where the antecedent is otherwise undefined (§ 535).

79. Dīgnus, indīgnus, aptus, and idōneus, take a Subjunctive clause with a relative (rarely with ut) (§ 535. f).

SYNTAX: IMPORTANT RULES

80. Clauses of Result take the Subjunctive introduced by ut, so that (negative, ut nōn), or by a Relative Pronoun or Relative Adverb (§ 537).

81. The Causal Particles quod, quia, and quoniam take the Indicative when the reason is given on the authority of the writer or speaker ; the Subjunctive when the reason is given on the authority of another (§ 540).

82. The particles postquam (posteāquam), ubi, ut (ut prīmum, ut semel), simul atque (simul ac, or simul alone) take the Indicative (usually in the perfect or the historical present) (§ 543).

83. A Temporal clause with cum, when, and some past tense of the Indicative dates or defines the time at which the action of the main verb occurred (§ 545).

84. A Temporal clause with cum and the Imperfect or Pluperfect Subjunctive describes the circumstances that accompanied or preceded the action of the main verb (§ 546).

85. Cum Causal or Concessive takes the Subjunctive (§ 549).

For other concessive particles, see § 527.

86. In Indirect Discourse the main clause of a Declaratory Sentence is put in the Infinitive with Subject Accusative. All subordinate clauses take the Subjunctive (§ 580).

87. The Present, the Perfect, or the Future Infinitive is used in Indirect Discourse, according as the time indicated is present, past, or future with reference to the verb of saying etc. by which the Indirect Discourse is introduced (§ 584).

88. In Indirect Discourse a real question is generally put in the Subjunctive ; a rhetorical question in the Infinitive (§ 586).

89. All Imperative forms of speech take the Subjunctive in Indirect Discourse (§ 588).

90. A Subordinate clause takes the Subjunctive when it expresses the thought of some other person than the writer or speaker (Informal Indirect Discourse, § 592).

91. A clause depending on a Subjunctive clause or an equivalent Infinitive will itself take the Subjunctive if regarded as an integral part of that clause (Attraction, § 593).

For Prepositions and their cases, see §§ 220, 221.

For Conditional Sentences, see § 512 ff. (Scheme in § 514.)

For ways of expressing Purpose, see § 533.

ORDER OF WORDS

595. Latin differs from English in having more freedom in the arrangement of words for the purpose of showing the relative importance of the ideas in a sentence.

596. As in other languages, the Subject tends to stand first, the Predicate last. Thus,—

Pausāniās Lacedaemonius māgnus homō sed varius in omnī genere vītae fuit (Nep. Paus. 1), Pausanias the Lacedœmonian was a great man, but inconsistent in the whole course of his life.

NOTE.—This happens because, from the speaker's ordinary point of view, the subject of his discourse is the most important thing in it, as singled out from all other things to be spoken of.

a. There is in Latin, however, a special tendency to place the verb itself last of all, after all its modifiers. But many writers purposely avoid the monotony of this arrangement by putting the verb last but one, followed by some single word of the predicate.

597. In connected discourse the word most prominent in the speaker's mind comes first, and so on in order of prominence. This relative prominence corresponds to that indicated in English by a graduated stress of voice (usually called emphasis).
a. The difference in emphasis expressed by difference in order of words is illustrated in the following passages:—

apud Xenophōntem autem moriēns C yrus mâior haec dīcit (Cat. M. 79), IN XENOPHON too, on his death-bed Cyrus the elder utters these words.

C yrus quidem haec moriēns; nōs, sī placet, nostra videāmus (id. 82), CYRUS, to be sure, utters these words on his death-bed; let us, if you please, consider our own case.

C yrus quidem apud Xenophōntem eō sermōne, quem moriēns habuit (id. 30), CYRUS, to be sure, in Xenophon, in that speech which he uttered on his death-bed.

NOTE.—This stress or emphasis, however, in English does not necessarily show any violent contrast to the rest of the words in the sentence, but is infinitely varied, constantly increasing and diminishing, and often so subtle as to be unnoticed except in careful study. So, as a general rule, the precedence of words in a Latin sentence is not mechanical, but corresponds to the prominence which a good speaker would mark by skilfully managed stress of voice. A Latin written sentence, therefore, has all the clearness and expression which could be given to a spoken discourse by the best actor in English. Some exceptions to the rule will be treated later.
The first chapter of Cæsar's Gallic War, if rendered so as to bring out as far as possible the shades of emphasis, would run thus:— ORDER OF WORDS

=58mm=.333333em plus8pt minus2pt GAUL, a in the widest sense, is divided b into three parts, c which are inhabited d (as follows): one e by the Belgians, another f by the Aquitani, the third by a people called in their own g language Celts, in ours Gauls. THESE h in their language, i institutions, and laws are all of them j different. The GAULS j2 (proper) are separated k from the Aquitani by the river Garonne, from the Belgians by the Marne and Seine. Of THESE l (TRIBES) the bravest of all m are the Belgians, for the reason that they live farthest n away

=40mm=.333333em plus8pt minus2ptGallia est omnis dīvīsa in partīs trīs, quārum ūnam incolunt Belgae, aliam Aquītānī, tertiam quī ipsōrum linguā Celtae, nostrā Gallī appellantur. Hī omnēs linguā, īnstitūtīs, lēgibus inter sē differunt. Gallōs ab Aquītānīs Garumna flūmen, ā Belgīs Mātrona et Sēquana dīvidit. Hōrum omnium fortissimī sunt Belgae, proptereā quod ā cultū atque hūmānitāte

aGAUL: emphatic as the subject of discourse, as with a title or the like. bDivided: opposed to the false conception (implied in the use of omnis) that the country called Gallia by the Romans is one. This appears more clearly from the fact that Cæsar later speaks of the Gall=i in a narrower sense as distinct from the other two tribes, who with them inhabit Gallia in the wider sense. cParts: continuing the emphasis begun in dīvīsa. Not three parts as opposed to any other number, but into parts at all. dInhabited: emphatic as the next subject, ``The inhabitants of these parts are, etc.'' eOne: given more prominence than it otherwise would have on account of its close connection with quārum. fAnother, etc.: opposed to one. gTheir own, ours: strongly opposed to each other. hTHESE (tribes): the main subject of discourse again, collecting under one head the names previously mentioned. iLanguage, etc.: these are the most prominent ideas, as giving the striking points which distinguish the tribes. The emphasis becomes natural in English if we say ``these have a different language, different institutions, different laws.'' jAll of them: the emphasis on all marks the distributive character of the adjective, as if it were ``every one has its own, etc.'' j2GAULS: emphatic as referring to the Gauls proper in distinction from the other tribes. kSeparated: though this word contains an indispensable idea in the connection, yet it has a subordinate position. It is not emphatic in Latin, as is seen from the fact that it cannot be made emphatic in English. The sense is: The Gauls lie between the Aquitani on the one side, and the Belgians on the other. lOf THESE: the subject of discourse. mAll: emphasizing the superlative idea in ``bravest''; they, as Gauls, are assumed to be warlike, but the most so of all of them are the Belgians. nFarthest away: one might expect absunt (are away) to have a more emphatic place, but it is dwarfed in importance by the predominance of the main idea, the effeminating influences from which the Belgians are said to be free. It is not that they live farthest off that is insisted on, but that the civilization of the Province etc., which would soften them, comes less in their way. It is to be noticed also that absunt has already been anticipated by the construction of cultū and still more by longissimē, so that when it comes it amounts only to a formal part of the sentence. Thus,— ``because the civilization etc. of the Province (which would soften them) is farthest from them.'' ORDER OF WORDS

=58mm=.333333em plus8pt minus2pt from the CIVILIZATION and REFINEMENT of the Province, and because they are LEAST a of all of them subject to the visits of traders, b and to the (consequent) importation of such things as c tend to soften d their warlike spirit; and are also nearest e to the Germans, who live across the Rhine,²⁴² and with whom they are incessantly f at war. For the same reason the HELVETIANS, as well, are superior to all the other Gauls in valor, because they are engaged in almost daily battles with the Germans, either defending their own boundaries from them, or themselves making war on those of the Germans. Of ALL THIS country, one part — the one which, as has been said, the Gauls (proper) occupy — BEGINS at the river Rhone. Its boundaries are the river Garonne, the ocean, and the confines of the Belgians. It even REACHES on the side of the Sequani and Helvetians the river Rhine. Its general direction is towards the north. The BELGIANS begin at the extreme limits of Gaul; they reach (on this side) as far as the lower part of the Rhine. They spread to the northward and eastward. AQUITANIA extends from the Garonne to the Pyrenees, and that part of the ocean that lies towards Spain. It runs off westward and northward.

=40mm=.333333em plus8pt minus2ptprōvinciae longissimē absunt, minimēque ad eōs mercātōrēs saepe commeant atque ea quae ad effēminandōs animōs pertinent important, proximīque sunt Germānīs, quī trāns Rhēnum incolunt, quibuscum continenter bellum gerunt. Quā dē causā Helvētiī quoque reliquōs Gallōs virtūte praecēdunt, quod ferē cotīdiānīs proeliīs cum Germānīs contendunt, cum aut suīs fīnibus eōs prohibent, aut ipsī in eōrum fīnibus bellum gerunt. Eōrum ūna pars, quam Gallōs obtinēre dictum est, initium capit ā flūmine Rhodanō; continētur Garumnā flūmine, Ōceanō, fīnibus Belgārum; attingit etiam ab Sēquanīs et Helvētiīs flūmen Rhēnum ; vergit ad septentriōnēs. Belgae ab extrēmīs Galliae fīnibus oriuntur: pertinent ad īnferiōrem partem flūminis Rhēnī; spectant in septentriōnem et orientem sōlem. Aquītānia ā Garumnā flūmine ad P yrēnaeōs montīs et eam partem Ōceanī quae est ad Hispāniam pertinet; spectat inter occāsum sōlis et septentriōnēs.

aLEAST: made emphatic here by a common Latin order, the chiasmus (§ 598. f). bTraders: the fourth member of the chiasmus, opposed to cultū and hūmānitāte. cSuch things as: the importance of the nature of the importations overshadows the fact that they are imported, which fact is anticipated in traders. dSoften: cf. what is said in note 15, p. 394. They are brave because they have less to soften them, their native barbarity being taken for granted. eNearest: the same idiomatic prominence as in note 1 above, but varied by a special usage combining chiasmus and anaphora (§ 598. f). fIncessantly: the continuance of the warfare becomes the all-important idea, as if it were ``and not a day passes in which they are not at war with them.''
b. The more important word is never placed last for emphasis. The apparent cases of this usage (when the emphasis is not misconceived) are cases where a word is added as an afterthought, either real or affected, and so has its position not in the sentence to which it is appended, but, as it were, in a new one. ORDER OF WORDS

598. The main rules for the Order of Words are as follows:—
a. In any phrase the determining and most significant word comes first:—
1. Adjective and Noun:—

omnīs hominēs decet, EVERY man ought (opposed to some who do not).

Lūcius Catilīna nōbilī genere nātus fuit, māgnā vī et animī et corporis, sed ingeniō malō prāvōque (Sall. Cat. 5), Lucius Catiline was born of a NOBLE family, with GREAT force of mind and body, but with a NATURE that was evil and depraved. [Here the adjectives in the first part are the emphatic and important words, no antithesis between the nouns being as yet thought of; but in the second branch the noun is meant to be opposed to those before mentioned, and immediately takes the prominent place, as is seen by the natural English emphasis, thus making a chiasmus.²⁴³]

2. Word with modifying case:—

quid magis Epamīnōndam, Thēbānōrum imperātōrem, quam victōriae Thēbānōrum cōnsulere decuit (Inv. i. 69), what should Epaminondas, commander of the THEBANS, have aimed at more than the VICTORY of the Thebans?

lacrimā nihil citius ārēscit (id. i. 109), nothing dries quicker than a TEAR.

nēmō ferē laudis cupidus (De Or. i. 14), hardly any one desirous of GLORY (cf. Manil. 7, avidī laudis, EAGER for glory).

b. Numeral adjectives, adjectives of quantity, demonstrative, relative, and interrogative pronouns and adverbs, tend to precede the word or words to which they belong:—

cum aliquā perturbātiōne (Off. i. 137), with SOME disturbance.

hōc ūnō praestāmus (De Or. i. 32), in THIS one thing we excel.

cēterae ferē artēs, the OTHER arts.

NOTE.—This happens because such words are usually emphatic; but often the words connected with them are more so, and in such cases the pronouns etc. yield the emphatic place:—

causa

some

CASE

stilus ille tuus (id. i. 257), that well-known STYLE of yours (in an antithesis; see passage). [Ille is idiomatic in this sense and position.]

Rōmam quae apportāta sunt (Verr. iv. 121), what were carried to ROME (in contrast to what remained at Syracuse).

c. When sum is used as the Substantive verb (§ 284. b), it regularly stands first, or at any rate before its subject:—

est virī māgnī pūnīre sontis (Off. i. 82), it is the duty of a great man to punish the guilty.

ORDER OF WORDS
d. The verb may come first, or have a prominent position, either (1) because the idea in it is emphatic; or (2) because the predication of the whole statement is emphatic ; or (3) the tense only may be emphatic:—

(1) dīcēbat idem Cotta (Off. ii. 59), Cotta used to SAY the same thing (opposed to others' boasting).

idem fēcit adulēscēns M. Antōnius (id. ii. 49), the same thing was DONE by Mark Antony in his youth. [Opposed to dīxī just before.]

facis amīcē (Lael. 9), you ACT kindly. [Cf. amīcē facis, you are very KIND (you act KINDLY).]

(2) prōpēnsior benīgnitās esse dēbēbit in calamitōsōs nisi forte erunt d=ign=i calamit=ate (Off. ii. 62), liberality ought to be readier toward the unfortunate unless perchance they REALLY DESERVE their misfortune.

praesertim cum scrībat (Panaetius) (id. iii. 8), especially when he DOES SAY (in his books). [Opposed to something omitted by him.]

(3) fuimus Tr=oes, fuit =ilium (Aen. ii. 325), we have CEASED to be Trojans, Troy is now no MORE.

loquor autem dē commūnibus amīcitiīs (Off. iii. 45), but I am SPEAKING NOW of common friendships.

e. Often the connection of two emphatic phrases is brought about by giving the precedence to the most prominent part of each and leaving the less prominent parts to follow in inconspicuous places:—

plūrēs solent esse causae (Off. i. 28), there are USUALLY SEVERAL reasons.

quōs āmīsimus cīvīs, eōs Mārtis vīs perculit (Marc. 17), WHAT fellow-citizens we have LOST, have been stricken down by the violence of war.

maximās tibi omnēs grātiās agimus (id. 33), we ALL render you the WARMEST thanks.

haec rēs ūnīus est propria Caesaris (id. 11), THIS exploit belongs to Cæsar ALONE.

obiūrgātiōnēs etiam nōn numquam incidunt necessāriae (Off. i. 136), OCCASIONS FOR REBUKE also SOMETIMES occur which are unavoidable.

f. Antithesis between two pairs of ideas is indicated by placing the pairs either (1) in the same order (anaphora) or (2) in exactly the opposite order (chiasmus):—

(1) rērum cōpia verbōrum cōpiam gignit (De Or. iii. 125), ABUNDANCE of MATTER produces COPIOUSNESS of EXPRESSION.

(2) lēgēs suppliciō improbōs afficiunt, dēfendunt ac tuentur bonōs (Legg. ii. 13), the laws VISIT PUNISHMENTS upon the WICKED, but the GOOD they DEFEND and PROTECT.

NOTE.—Chiasmus is very common in Latin, and often seems in fact the more inartificial construction. In an artless narrative one might hear, ``The women were all drowned, they saved the men.''

nōn igitur ūtilitātem amīcitia sed ūtilitās amīcitiam cōnsecūta est (Lael. 51), it is not then that friendship has followed upon advantage, but advantage upon friendship. [Here the chiasmus is only grammatical, the ideas being in the parallel order.] (See also p. 395: longissimē, minimē, proximī.)

ORDER OF WORDS
g. A modifier of a phrase or some part of it is often embodied within the phrase (cf. a):—

dē commūnī hominum memoriā (Tusc. i. 59), in regard to the UNIVERSAL memory of man.

h. A favorite order with the poets is the interlocked, by which the attribute of one pair comes between the parts of the other (synchysis):—

et superiectō pavidae natārunt aequore dammae (Hor. Od. i. 2. 11).

NOTE.—This is often joined with chiasmus: as,— arma n=ondum expi=at=is =uncta cru=oribus (id. ii. 1. 5).

i. Frequently unimportant words follow in the train of more emphatic ones with which they are grammatically connected, and so acquire a prominence out of proportion to their importance:—

dictitābat sē hortulōs aliquōs emere velle (Off. iii. 58), he gave out that he wanted to buy some gardens. [Here aliquōs is less emphatic than emere, but precedes it on account of the emphasis on hortulōs.]

j. The copula is generally felt to be of so little importance that it may come in anywhere where it sounds well; but usually under cover of more emphatic words:—

cōnsul ego quaesīvī, cum vōs mihi essētis in cōnsiliō (Rep. iii. 28), as consul I held an investigation in which you attended me in council.

falsum est id tōtum (id. ii. 28), that is all false.

k. Many expressions have acquired an invariable order:—

rēs pūblica; populus Rōmānus ; honōris causā; pāce tantī virī.

NOTE.—These had, no doubt, originally an emphasis which required such an arrangement, but in the course of time have changed their shade of meaning. Thus, senātus populusque Rōmānus originally stated with emphasis the official bodies, but became fixed so as to be the only permissible form of expression.

1. The Romans had a fondness for emphasizing persons, so that a name or a pronoun often stands in an emphatic place:—

sē

that he didn't have any gardens for sale, to be sure

m. Kindred words often come together (fig=ura etymologica):—

ita sēnsim sine sēnsū aetās senēscit (Cat. M. 38), thus gradually, without being perceived, man's life grows old.

Special Rules

599. The following are special rules of arrangement:—
a. The negative precedes the word it especially affects ; but if it belongs to no one word in particular, it generally precedes the verb ; if it is especially emphatic, it begins the sentence. (See example, 598. f. N.) STRUCTURE OF THE PERIOD
b. Itaque regularly comes first in its sentence or clause; enim, autem, vērō, quoque, never first, but usually second, sometimes third if the second word is emphatic; quidem never first, but after the emphatic word; igitur usually second; nē …quidem include the emphatic word or words.
c. Inquam, inquit, are always used parenthetically, following one or more words. So often crēdō, opīnor, and in poetry sometimes precor.
d. (1) Prepositions (except tenus and versus) regularly precede their nouns; (2) but a monosyllabic preposition is often placed between a noun and its adjective or limiting genitive:—

quem ad modum; quam ob rem; māgnō cum metū; omnibus cum cōpiīs; nūllā in rē (cf. § 598. i).

e. In the arrangement of clauses, the Relative clause more often comes first in Latin, and usually contains the antecedent noun:—

quōs āmīsimus cīvīs, eōs Mārtis vīs perculit (Marc. 17), those citizens whom we have lost, etc.

f. Personal or demonstrative pronouns tend to stand together in the sentence:—

cum vōs mihi essētis in cōnsiliō (Rep. iii. 28), when you attended me in counsel.

Structure of the Period

600. Latin, unlike modern languages, expresses the relation of words to each other by inflection rather than by position. Hence its structure not only admits of great variety in the arrangement of words, but is especially favorable to that form of sentence which is called a Period. In a period, the sense is expressed by the sentence as a whole, and is held in suspense till the delivery of the last word. An English sentence does not often exhibit this form of structure. It was imitated, sometimes with great skill and beauty, by many of the earlier writers of English prose; but its effect is better seen in poetry, as in the following passage:— High on a throne of royal state, which far Outshone the wealth of Ormus and of Ind, Or where the gorgeous East with richest hand Showers on her kings barbaric pearl and gold, Satan exalted sat. Paradise Lost, ii. 1–5. But in argument or narrative, the best English writers more commonly give short clear sentences, each distinct from the rest, and saying one thing by itself. In Latin, on the contrary, the story or argument is viewed as a whole; and the logical relation among all its parts is carefully indicated.

601. In the structure of the Period, the following rules are to be observed:—
a. In general the main subject or object is put in the main clause, not in a subordinate one:—

Hannibal cum recēnsuisset auxilia Gādēs profectus est (Liv. xxi. 21), when Hannibal had reviewed the auxiliaries, he set out for Cadiz.

ORDER OF WORDS

Volscī exiguam spem in armīs, aliā undique abscissā, cum tentāssent, praeter cētera adversa, locō quoque inīquō ad pūgnam congressī, inīquiōre ad fugam, cum ab omnī parte caederentur, ad precēs ā certāmine versī dēditō imperātōre trāditīsque armīs, sub iugum missī, cum singulīs vestīmentīs, īgnōminiae clādisque plēnī dīmittuntur (Liv. iv. 10). [Here the main fact is the return of the Volscians. But the striking circumstances of the surrender etc., which in English would be detailed in a number of brief independent sentences, are put into the several subordinate clauses within the main clause so that the passage gives a complete picture in one sentence.]

b. Clauses are usually arranged in the order of prominence in the mind of the speaker; so, usually, cause before result; purpose, manner, and the like, before the act.
c. In coördinate clauses, the copulative conjunctions are frequently omitted (asyndeton). In such cases the connection is made clear by some antithesis indicated by the position of words.
d. A change of subject, when required, is marked by the introduction of a pronoun, if the new subject has already been mentioned. But such change is often purposely avoided by a change in structure,— the less important being merged in the more important by the aid of participles or of subordinate phrases:—

quem ut barbarī incendium effūgisse vīdērunt, tēlīs ēminus missīs interfēcērunt (Nep. Alc. 10), when the barbarians saw that he had escaped, THEY threw darts at HIM at long range and killed HIM.

celeriter cōnfectō negōtiō, in hīberna legiōnēs redūxit (B. G. vi. 3), the matter was soon finished, AND he led the legions, etc.

e. So the repetition of a noun, or the substitution of a pronoun for it, is avoided unless a different case is required:—

dolōrem sī nōn potuerō frangere occultābō (Phil. xii. 21), if I cannot conquer the pain, I will hide IT. [Cf. if I cannot conquer I will hide the pain.]

f. The Romans were careful to close a period with an agreeable succession of long and short syllables. Thus,—

quod scīs nihil prōdest, quod nescīs multum obest (Or. 166), what you know is of no use, what you do not know does great harm.

NOTE.—In rhetorical writing, particularly in oratory, the Romans, influenced by their study of the Greek orators, gave more attention to this matter than in other forms of composition. Quintilian (ix. 4. 72) lays down the general rule that a clause should not open with the beginning of a verse or close with the end of one.
QUANTITY OF VOWELS

PROSODY

QUANTITY

602. The poetry of the Indo-European people seems originally to have been somewhat like our own, depending on accent for its metre and disregarding the natural quantity of syllables. The Greeks, however, developed a form of poetry which, like music, pays close attention to the natural quantity of syllables; and the Romans borrowed their metrical forms in classical times from the Greeks. Hence Latin poetry does not depend, like ours, upon accent and rhyme; but is measured, like musical strains, by the length of syllables. Especially does it differ from our verse in not regarding the prose accent of the words, but substituting for that an entirely different system of metrical accent or ictus (see § 611. a). This depends upon the character of the measure used, falling at regular intervals of time on a long syllable or its equivalent. Each syllable is counted as either long or short in Quantity; and a long syllable is generally reckoned equal in length to two short ones (for exceptions, see § 608. c-e). The quantity of radical (or stem) syllables — as of short a in păter or of long a in māter — can be learned only by observation and practice, unless determined by the general rules of quantity. Most of these rules are only arbitrary formulas devised to assist the memory; the syllables being long or short because the ancients pronounced them so. The actual practice of the Romans in regard to the quantity of syllables is ascertained chiefly from the usage of the poets; but the ancient grammarians give some assistance, and in some inscriptions long vowels are distinguished in various ways, — by the apex, for instance, or by doubling (§ 10. e. N.). Since Roman poets borrow very largely from the poetry and mythology of the Greeks, numerous Greek words, especially proper names, make an important part of Latin poetry. These words are generally employed in accordance with the Greek, and not the Latin, laws of quantity. Where these laws vary in any important point, the variations will be noticed in the rules below.

GENERAL RULES

603. The following are General Rules of Quantity (cf. §§ 9–11):

Quantity of Vowels

a. Vowels. A vowel before another vowel or h is short: as, vĭa, trăhō. Exceptions. — 1. In the genitive form -ius, ī is long: as, utrīus, nūllīus. It is, however, sometimes short in verse (§ 113. c).
2. In the genitive and dative singular of the fifth declension, e is long between two vowels: as, diēī; otherwise usually short, as in fidĕī, rĕī, spĕī.
NOTE.—It was once long in these also: as, plēnu^s fidēī (Ennius, at the end of a hexameter). A is also long before ī in the old genitive of the first declension: as, aulāī.

3. In the conjugation of fīō, i is long except when followed by er. Thus, fīō, fīēbam, fīam, but fīerī, fīerem; so also fĭt (§ 606. a. 3).
4. In many Greek words the vowel in Latin represents a long vowel or diphthong, and retains its original long quantity: as, Trōes (Τρ~ωες), Thalīa (Θαλε~ια), hērōas (ή̓ρωας), āēr(ά̓ηπ). PROSODY: QUANTITY
NOTE.—But many Greek words are more or less Latinized in this respect: as, Acadēmī̆a, chorē̆a, Malĕa, platĕa.

5. In d=ius, in ē̆heu usually, and sometimes in Dī̆āna and ō̆he, the first vowel is long.
b. Diphthongs. A Diphthong is long: as, f oedus, c ui,²⁴⁴ aula. Exception. — The preposition prae in compounds is generally shortened before a vowel: as, praĕ-ustīs (Aen. vii. 524), praĕ-eunte (id. v. 186).
NOTE.—U following q, s, or g, does not make a diphthong with a following vowel (see § 5. N.^2). For â-iō, mâ-ior, pê-ior, etc., see § 11. d and N.

c. Contraction. A vowel formed by contraction (crasis) is long: as, nīl, from nihil; cōgō for co-agō; mālō for mā-volō.
NOTE.—Two vowels of different syllables may be run together without full contraction (synizēsis, § 642): as, deinde (for deinde), meōs (for meōs); and often two syllables are united by Synæresis (§ 642) without contraction: as when părĭĕtĭbŭs is pronounced paryĕtĭbus.

d. A vowel before ns, nf, gn, is long: as, īnstō, īnfāns, sīgnum.

Quantity of Syllables

e. A syllable is long if it contains a long vowel or a diphthong: as, cā-rus, ō-men, foe-dus.
f. Position. A syllable is long by position if its vowel, though short, is followed by two consonants or a double consonant: as, adventus, cortex. But if the two consonants are a mute followed by 1 or r the syllable may be either long or short (common) ; as, alacris or alăcris; patris or pătris. Vowels should be pronounced long or short in accordance with their natural quantity without regard to the length of the syllable by position.
NOTE 1.—The rules of Position do not, in general, apply to final vowels before a word beginning with two consonants.

NOTE 2.—A syllable is long if its vowel is followed by consonant i (except in bĭiugis, quadrĭiugis): see § 11. d.

NOTE 3.—Compounds of iaciō, though written with one i, commonly retain the long vowel of the prepositions with which they are compounded, as if before a consonant, and, if the vowel of the preposition is short, the first syllable is long by position on the principle of § 11. e.

obicis hostī (at the end of a hexameter, Aen. iv. 549).

inicit et saltū (at the beginning of a hexameter, Aen. ix. 552).

prōice tēla manū (at the beginning of a hexameter, Aen. vi. 836).

Later poets sometimes shorten the preposition in trisyllabic forms, and prepositions ending in a vowel are sometimes contracted as if the verb began with a vowel:

(1) cūr an|nōs ŏbĭ|cis (Claud. iv C. H. 264).

(2) reicĕ că|pellās (Ecl. iii. 96, at end).

NOTE 4.—The y or w sound resulting from synæresis (§ 642) has the effect of a consonant in making position: as, abietis (abyetis), fluviōrum (fluvy=orum). Conversely, when the semivowel becomes a vowel, position is lost: as, sĭlŭae, for silvae.
FINAL SYLLABLES

FINAL SYLLABLES

604. The Quantity of Final Syllables is as follows:—
a. Monosyllables ending in a vowel are long: as, mē, tū, hī, nē. 1. The attached particles -nĕ, -quĕ, -vĕ, -cĕ, -ptĕ, and rĕ- (rĕd-) are short; sē- (sēd-) and dī- are long. Thus, sēcēdit, sēditiō, exercitumquĕ rĕdūcit, dīmittō. But re- is often long in rēligiō (relligiō), rētulī (rettulī), rēpulī (reppulī).
b. Nouns and adjectives of one syllable are long: as, sōl, ōs (ōris), bōs, pār, vās (vāsis), vēr, vīs. Exceptions. — cŏr, fĕl, lăc, mĕl, ŏs (ossis), văs (vădis), vĭr, tŏt, quŏt.
c. Most monosyllabic Particles are short: as, ăn, ĭn, cĭs, nĕc. But crās, cūr, ēn, nōn, quīn, sīn — with adverbs in c: as, hīc, hūc, sīc — are long.
d. Final a in words declined by cases is short, except in the ablative singular of the first declension ; in all other words final a is long. Thus, eă stellă (nominative), cum eā stellā (ablative) ; frūstrā, vocā (imperative), posteā, trīgintā. Exceptions. — ēiă, ită, quiă, pută (suppose); and, in late use, trīgintă etc.
e. Final e is short: as in nūbĕ, dūcitĕ, saepĕ. Exceptions. — Final e is long — 1. In adverbs formed from adjectives of the first and second declension, with others of like form: as, altē, longē, miserē, apertē, saepissimē. So ferē, fermē. But it is short in benĕ, malĕ ; īnfernĕ, supernĕ. 2. In nouns of the fifth declension: as, fidē (also famē), faciē, hodiē, quārē (quā rē). 3. In Greek neuters plural of the second declension: as, cētē; and in some other Greek words: Phoebē, Circē, Andromachē, etc. 4. In the imperative singular of the second conjugation: as, vidē. But sometimes cavĕ, habĕ, tacĕ, valĕ, vidĕ (cf. § 629. b. 1).
f. Final i is long: as in turrī, fīlī, audī. Exceptions. — Final i is common in mihi, tibi, sibi, ibi, ubi ; and short in nisĭ, quasĭ, sīcutĭ, cuĭ (when making two syllables), and in Greek vocatives: as, Alexĭ.
g. Final o is common: but long in datives and ablatives; also in nouns of the third declension. It is almost invariably long in verbs before the time of Ovid. Exceptions. — citŏ, modŏ (dummodŏ), immŏ, profectŏ, egŏ, duŏ, cedŏ (the imperative); so sometimes octŏ, īlicŏ, etc., particularly in later writers.
h. Final u is long. Final y is short
i. Final as, es, os, are long ; final is, as, ys, are short: as, nefās, rūpēs, servōs (accusative), honōs ; hostĭs, amīcŭs, Tethy̆s. PROSODY: QUANTITY Exceptions. — 1. as is short in Greek plural accusatives: as, lampadăs ; and in anăs. 2. es is short in the nominative of nouns of the third declension (lingual) having a short vowel in the stem: as, mīlĕs (-ĭtis), obsĕs (-ĭdis), — except abiēs, ariēs, pariēs, pēs ; in the present of esse (ĕs, adĕs) ; in the preposition penĕs, and in the plural of Greek nouns: as, hērōĕs, lampadĕs. 3. os is short in compŏs, impŏs ; in the Greek nominative ending: as, barbit os: in the old nominative of the second declension: as, servŏs (later servus). 4. is in plural cases is long: as in bonīs, nōbīs, vōbīs, omnīs (accusative plural). 5. is is long in the verb forms fīs, sīs, vīs (with quīvīs etc.), velīs, mālīs, nōlīs, edīs ; in the second person singular of the present indicative active in the fourth conjugation: as, audīs ; and sometimes in the forms in -eris (future perfect indicative or perfect subjunctive). 6. us is long in the genitive singular and nominative, accusative, and vocative plural of the fourth declension ; and in nouns of the third declension having ū (long) in the stem: as, virtūs (-ūtis), incūs (-ūdis). But pecŭs, -ŭdis.
j. Of other final syllables, those ending in a single consonant are short Thus, amăt, amātŭr ; dōnĕc, făc, procŭl, iubăr. Exceptions. — hīc (also hīc); allēc; the ablatives illōc, etc.; certain adverbs in -c: as, illīc, istūc; liēn, and some Greek nouns: as, āēr, aethēr, crātēr.

Perfects and Perfect Participles

605. Perfects and Perfect Participles of two syllables have the first syllable long: as, iūvī, iūtum (iŭvō), vīdī, vīsum (vĭdeō); fūgī (fŭgiō); vēnī (vĕniō). Exceptions. — bĭbī, dĕdī, fĭdī, scĭdī, stĕtī, stĭtī, tŭlī; cĭtum, dătum, ĭtum, lĭtum, quĭtum, rătum, rŭtum, sătum, sĭtum, stătum. In some compounds of stō, stātum is found (long), as praestātum.
a. In reduplicated perfects the vowel of the reduplication is short; the vowel of the following syllable is, also, usually short: as, cĕcĭdī (cădō), dĭdĭcī (discō), pŭpŭgī (pungō), cŭcŭrrī (currō), tĕtĕndī (tendō), mŏmŏrdī (mordeō). But cĕcīdī from caedō, pepēdī from pēdō.

Derivatives

606. Rules for the Quantity of Derivatives are:—
a. Forms from the same stem have the same quantity: as, ămō, ămāvistī; gĕnus, gĕneris. Exceptions. — 1. bōs, lār, mās, pār, pēs, sāl,— also arbōs,— have a long vowel in the nominative, though the stem-vowel is short (cf. genitive bŏvis etc.). ²⁴⁵ RHYTHM 2. Nouns in -or, genitive -ōris, have the vowel shortened before the final r: as, honŏr. (But this shortening is comparatively late, so that in early Latin these nominatives are often found long.) 3. Verb-forms with vowel originally long regularly shorten it before final m, r, or t: as, amĕm, amĕr, dīcerĕr, amĕt (compare amēmus), dīcerĕt, audĭt, fĭt.
NOTE.—The final syllable in t of the perfect was long in old Latin, but is short in the classic period.
4. A few long stem-syllables are shortened: as, ācer, ăcerbus. So dē-iĕrō and pē-iĕrō, weakened from iūrō.
b. Forms from the same root often show inherited variations of vowel quantity (see § 17): as, dīcō (cf. maledĭcus); dūcō (dŭx, dŭcis); fīdō (perfĭdus) vōx, vōcis (vŏcō); lēx, lēgis (lĕgō).
c. Compounds retain the quantity of the words which compose them as, oc-cĭdō (cădō), oc-cīdō (caedō), in-īquus (aequus).
NOTE.—Greek words compounded with πρ o have o short: as, prŏphēta, prŏlŏgus. Some Latin compounds of prō have o short: as, prŏficīscor, prŏfiteor. Compounds with ue vary: as, nĕfās, nĕgō, nĕqueŏ, nēquam.

RHYTHM

607. The essence of Rhythm in poetry is the regular recurrence of syllables pronounced with more stress than those intervening. To produce this effect in its perfection, precisely equal times should occur between the recurrences of the stress. But, in the application of rhythm to words, the exactness of these intervals is sacrificed somewhat to the necessary length of the words; and, on the other hand, the words are forced somewhat in their pronunciation, to produce more nearly the proper intervals of time. In different languages these adaptations take place in different degrees; one language disregarding more the intervals of time, another the pronunciation of the words. The Greek language early developed a very strict rhythmical form of poetry, in which the intervals of time were all-important. The earliest Latin, on the other hand,— as in the Saturnian and Fescennine verse, — was not so restricted. But the purely metrical forms were afterwards adopted from the Greek, and supplanted the native forms of verse. Thus the Latin poetry with which we have to do follows for the most part Greek rules, which require the formal division of words (like music) into measures of equal times, technically called Feet. The strict rhythm was doubtless more closely followed in poetry that was sung than in that which was declaimed or intoned. In neither language, however, is the time perfectly preserved, even in single measures: and there are some cases in which the regularity of the time between the ictuses is disturbed. The Greeks and Romans distinguished syllables of two kinds in regard to the time required for their pronunciation, a long syllable having twice the metrical value of a short one. But it must not be supposed that all long syllables were of equal length, or even that in a given passage each long had just twice the length of the contiguous shorts. The ratio was only approximate at best, though necessarily more exact in singing than in recitation. Nor are longs and shorts the only forms of syllables that are found. In some cases a long syllable was protracted, so as to have the time of three or even of four shorts, and often one long or two shorts were pronounced in less than their proper time, though they were perhaps distinguishable in time from one ORDER OF WORDS short (see § 608. c, d). Sometimes a syllable naturally short seems to have been slightly prolonged, so as to represent a long, though in most (not all) cases the apparent irregularity can be otherwise explained. In a few cases, also, a pause takes the place of one or more syllables to fill out the required length of the measure. This could, of course, take place only at the end of a word: hence the importance of Cæsura and Diæresis in prosody (§ 611. b, c).

Measures

608. Rhythm consists of the division of musical sound into equal intervals of time called Measures or Feet. The most natural division of musical time is into measures consisting of either two or three equal parts. But the ancients also distinguished measures of five equal parts.
NOTE.—The divisions of musical time are marked by a stress of voice on one or the other part of the measure. This stress is called the Ictus (beat), or metrical accent (see § 611. a).

a. The unit of length in Prosody is one short syllable. This is called a Mora. It is represented by the sign , or in musical notation by the eighth note or quaver ( ).
b. A long syllable is regularly equal to two moræ, and is represented by the sign —, or by the quarter note or crotchet ( ).
c. A long syllable may be protracted, so as to occupy the time of three or four moræ. Such a syllable, if equal to three moræ, is represented by the sign (or dotted quarter ); if equal to four, by [QUERY] (or the half note or minim, ).
d. A long syllable may be contracted, so as to take practically the time of a short one. Such a syllable is sometimes represented by the sign >.
e. A short syllable may be contracted so as to occupy less than one mora.
f. A pause sometimes occurs at the end of a verse or a series of verses, to fill up the time. A pause of one mora in a measure is indicated by the sign one of two moræby the sign .
g. One or more syllables are sometimes placed before the proper beginning of the measure. Such syllables are called an Anacr=usis or prelude.²⁴⁶ The anacrusis is regularly equal to the unaccented part of the measure. MEASURES

609. The feet most frequently employed in Latin verse, to gether with their musical notation, are the following:—

a. TRIPLE OR UNEQUAL MEASURES ( 38 )²⁴⁷

1. Trochee ( - ): ās, rēgĭs.

2. Iambus ( - ): ās, dŭcēs.

3. Tribrach²⁴⁸ ( ): ās, hŏmĭnĭs.

b. DOUBLE OR EQUAL MEASURES ( 24 )

1. Dactyl (- ): ās, cōnsŭlĭs.

2. Anapæst ( - ): ās, mŏnĭtōs.

3. Spondee (– ): ās, rēgēs.

c. SIX-TIMED MEASURES ( 34 )

1. Ionic ā mâiōre (– = ): as, cōnfēcĕrăt.

2. Ionic ā minōre ( – = ): as, rĕtŭlissent.

3. Choriambus (- - ): ās, contŭlĕrant.

d. QUINARY OR HEMIOLIC²⁴⁹ MEASURES ( 58 )

1. Cretic (- - ): ās, cōnsŭlēs.

2. Pæon prīmus (- = ): as, cōnsŭlĭbŭs.

3. Pæon quārtus ( = ): as, ĭtĭnĕrī.

4. Bacchīus ( - ): ās, ămīcōs.

PROSODY: RHYTHM
NOTE.—Several compound feet are mentioned by the grammarians, viz. Pyrrhic ( ); Amphibrach ( - ); Antibacch=ius (– ); Proceleusmatic ( ); the Molossus (—); the 2d and 3d Pæon, having a long syllable in the 2d or 3d place, with three short ones; 1st, 2d, 3d, and 4th Epitrĭtus, having a short syllable in the 1st, 2d, 3d, or 4th place, with three long ones.

Irrational Feet

e. Feet with these apparent quantities do not always occupy equal time, but may be contracted or prolonged to suit the series in which they occur. They are then called irrational, because the thesis and arsis do not have their normal ratio.²⁵⁰ Such are:— Irrational Spondee: (in place of a Trochee) - > (in place of an Iambus) > - or Cyclic Dactyl (in place of a Trochee): - or - = or Cyclic Anapæst (in place of an Iambus): - or - = or The apparent dactyl > , as a substitute for an iambus, and the apparent anapæst >, as a substitute for a trochee, occur frequently in the dramatic writers.
NOTE.—Narrative poetry was written for rhythmical recitation, or chant, with instrumental accompaniment; and Lyrical poetry for rhythmical melody, or singing. It must be borne in mind that in ancient music — which in this differs widely from modern — the rhythm of the melody was identical with the rhythm of the text. The lyric poetry was to be sung; the poet was musician and composer, as well as author. To this day a poet is said conventionally to ``sing.''

Thus a correct understanding of the rhythmical structure of the verse gives us the time, though not the tune, to which it was actually sung. The exact time, however, as indicated by the succession of long and short syllables, was varied according to certain laws of so-called ``Rhythmic,'' as will be explained below. In reading ancient verse it is necessary to bear in mind not only the variations in the relative length of syllables, but the occasional pause necessary to fill out the measure; and to remember that the rhythmical accent is the only one of importance, though the words should be distinguished carefully, and the sense preserved. Poetry should not be scanned, but read metrically.

THE MUSICAL ACCENT

Substitution

610. In many cases measures of the same time may be substituted for each other, a long syllable taking the place of two short ones, or two short syllables the place of a long one. In the former case the measure is said to be contracted; in the latter, to be resolved:—
a. A Spondee (–) may take the place of a Dactyl (- ) or an Anapæst ( -); and a Tribrach ( ) may take the place of a Trochee (- ) or an Iambus ( -). The optional substitution of one long syllable for two short ones is represented by the sign .
b. When a long syllable having the Ictus (§ 611. a) is resolved, the ictus properly belongs to both the resulting short syllables; but for convenience the mark of accent is placed on the first:— núnc ex|pĕ́rĭar | sítn^e ă|cḗtō | tĭ́bĭ cŏr | ā́cr^e in | péctŏ|rĕ́.Pl. Bac. 405. ->| >| - | ->| | ->| - |

The Musical Accent

611. That part of the measure which receives the stress of voice (the musical accent) is called the Thesis ; the unaccented part is called the Arsis.²⁵¹
a. The stress of voice laid upon the Thesis is called the Ictus (beat). It is marked thus: - .
b. The ending of a word within a measure is called Cæsura. When this coincides with a rhetorical pause, it is called the Cæsura of the verse, and is of main importance as affecting the melody or rhythm.
c. The coincidence of the end of a word with that of a measure is called Diæresis. PROSODY: VERSIFICATION

VERSIFICATION

THE VERSE

612. A single line of poetry — that is, a series of feet set in a recognized order — is called a Verse.²⁵²
NOTE.—Most of the common verses originally consisted of two series (hemistichs), but the joint between them is often obscured. It is marked in Iambic and Trochaic Tetrameter by the Diæresis, in Dactylic Hexameter by the Cæsura.

a. A verse lacking a syllable at the end is called Catalectic, that is, having a pause to fill the measure ; when the end syllable is not lacking, the verse is called Acatalectic, and has no such pause.
b. A final syllable, regularly short, is sometimes lengthened before a pause:²⁵³ it is then said to be long by Diastole:— nostrōr^um obruimur,— oriturque miserrima caedēs.Aen. ii. 411.
c. The last syllable of any verse may be indifferently long or short (syllaba anceps).

Scansion and Elision

d. To divide the verse into its appropriate measures, according to the rules of quantity and versification, is called scanning or scansion (scānsiō, a climbing or advance by steps, from scandō).
NOTE.—In reading verse rhythmically, care should be taken to preserve the measure or time of the syllables, but at the same time not to destroy or confuse the words themselves, as is often done in scanning.

e. In scanning, a vowel or diphthong at the end of a word (unless an interjection) is partially suppressed when the next word begins with a vowel or with h. This is called Elision (bruising).²⁵⁴ DACTYLIC HEXAMETER
NOTE.—Elision is sometimes called by the Greek name Synalœpha (smearing). Rarely a syllable is elided at the end of a verse when the next verse begins with a vowel: this is called Synapheia (binding).

f. A final m, with the preceding vowel, is suppressed in like manner when the next word begins with a vowel or h: this is called Ecthlipsis (squeezing out):— mōnstr^um horrend^um, īnform^e, īngēns, cui lūmen adēmptum.Aen. iii. 658.
NOTE 1.—Final m has a feeble nasal sound, so that its partial suppression before the initial vowel of the following word was easy.

NOTE 2.—The monosyllables dō, dem, spē, spem, sim, stō, stem, quī (plural), and monosyllabic interjections are never elided; nor is an iambic word elided in dactylic verse. Elision is often evaded by skilful collocation of words.

g. Elision is sometimes omitted when a word ending in a vowel has a special emphasis, or is succeeded by a pause. This omission is called Hiatus (gaping).
NOTE.—The final vowel is sometimes shortened in such cases.

FORMS OF VERSE

613. A verse receives its name from its dominant or fundamental foot: as, Dactylic, Iambic, Trochaic, Anapœstic; and from the number of measures (single or double) which it contains: as, Hexameter, Tetrameter, Trimeter, Dimeter.
NOTE.—Trochaic, Iambic, and Anapæstic verses are measured not by single feet, but by pairs (dipodia), so that six Iambi make a Trimeter.

614. A Stanza, or Strophe, consists of a definite number of verses ranged in a fixed order. Many stanzas are named after some eminent poet: as, Sapphic (from Sappho), Alcaic (from Alcæus), Archilochian (from Archilochus), Horatian (from Horace), and so on.

DACTYLIC VERSE

Dactylic Hexameter

615. The Dactylic Hexameter, or Heroic Verse, consists theoretically of six dactyls. It may be represented thus:— - | - | -|| | - | - | - -

| | | | |

PROSODY: VERSIFICATION
NOTE.—The last foot is usually said to be a spondee, but is in reality a trochee standing for a dactyl, since the final syllable is not measured.

a. For any foot, except the fifth, a spondee may be substituted.
b. Rarely a spondee is found in the fifth foot; the verse is then called spondaic and usually ends with a word of four syllables. Thus in Ecl. iv. 49 the verse ends with incrēmentum.
c. The hexameter has regularly one principal cæsura — sometimes two — almost always accompanied by a pause in the sense. 1. The principal cæsura is usually after the thesis (less commonly in the arsis) of the third foot, dividing the verse into two parts in sense and rhythm. See examples in d. 2. It may also be after the thesis (less commonly in the arsis) of the fourth foot. In this case there is often another cæsura in the second foot, so that the verse is divided into three parts:—

pártĕ fĕ|rṓx || ār|dḗnsqu^e ŏcŭ|lī́s || et | sī́bĭlă | cóllă. — Aen. v. 277.

NOTE.—Often the only indication of the principal among a number of cæsuras is the break in the sense.

A cæsura occurring after the first syllable of a foot is called masculine. A cæsura occurring after the second syllable of a foot is called feminine

cæsural pause

When the fourth foot ends a word, the break (properly a diæresis) is sometimes improperly called bucolic cæsura, from its frequency in pastoral poetry.

d. The first seven verses of the Æneid, divided according to the foregoing rules, will appear as follows. The principal cæsura in each verse is marked by double lines:— Armă vĭ|rumquĕ că|nō || Trō|iae quī | prīmŭs ăb | ōrīs ītălĭ|am fā|tō prŏfŭ|gus || Lā|vīniăquĕ | vēnĭt lītŏră, | mult^um il|l^e et ter|rīs || iac|tātŭs ĕt | altō vī sŭpĕ|rum || sae|vae mĕmŏ|rem Iū|nōnĭs ŏb | īrăm; multă quŏ|qu^e et bel|lō pas|sus || dum | condĕrĕt | urbĕm, īnfer|retquĕ dĕ|ōs Lătĭ|ō, || gĕnŭs | undĕ Lă|tīnum, Albā|nīquĕ pă|trēs, || at|qu^e altae | moenĭă | Rōmae.
1. The feminine cæsura is seen in the following:— Dīs gĕnĭ|tī pŏtŭ|ērĕ: || tĕ|nent mĕdĭ|^a omnĭă| silvae.Aen. vi. 131.
NOTE.—The Hexameter is thus illustrated in English verse:— Over the sea, past Crete, on the Syrian shore to the southward, Dwells in the well-tilled lowland a dark-haired Æthiop people, Skilful with needle and loom, and the arts of the dyer and carver, Skilful, but feeble of heart; for they know not the lords of Olympus, Lovers of men; neither broad-browed Zeus, nor Pallas Athen'e, Teacher of wisdom to heroes, bestower of might in the battle; Share not the cunning of Hermes, nor list to the songs of Apollo, Fearing the stars of the sky, and the roll of the blue salt water. Kingsley's Andromeda.
ELEGIAC STANZA

Elegiac Stanza

616. The Elegiac Stanza consists of two verses,— a Hexameter followed by a Pentameter.²⁵⁵ (two dactyls or spondees, a spondee, and two anapæsts), as follows:— ||- |- |-||-| -| || The Pentameter verse is the same as the Hexameter, except that it omits the last half of the third foot and of the sixth foot:— - | - | - || - | - | -

| | | | |

a. The Pentameter verse is therefore to be scanned as two half-verses, the second of which always consists of two dactyls followed by a single syllable.
b. The Pentameter has no regular Cæsura; but the first half-verse must always end with a word (diœresis, § 611. c), which is followed by a pause to complete the measure.²⁵⁶
c. The following verses will illustrate the forms of the Elegiac Stanza:— cum sŭbĭt | illī|us || trīs|tissĭmă | noctĭs ĭ|māgō quā mĭhĭ | suprē|mum || tempŭs ĭn | urbĕ fŭ|ĭt, cum rĕpĕ|tō noc|tem || quā | tot mĭhĭ | cāră rĕ|līquī, lābĭtŭr | ex ŏcŭ|līs || nunc quŏquĕ | guttă mĕ|īs. iam prŏpĕ | lūx ădĕ|rat || quā | mē dis|cēdĕrĕ | Caesar finĭbŭs | extrē|mae || iussĕrăt | Ausŏnĭ|ae. Ov. Trist. i. 3.
NOTE.—The Elegiac Stanza differs widely in character from hexameter verse (of which it is a mere modification) by its division into Distichs, each of which must have its own sense complete. It is employed in a great variety of compositions,— epistolary, amatory, and mournful,— and was especially a favorite of the poet Ovid. It has been illustrated in English verse, imitated from the German:— In the Hex|ameter | rises || the | fountain's | silvery | column; In the Pen|tameter | aye || falling in | melody | back.

Other Dactylic Verses

617. Other dactylic verses or half-verses are occasionally used by the lyric poets. PROSODY: VERSIFICATION
a. The Dactylic Tetrameter alternates with the hexameter, forming the Alcmanian Strophe, as follows:— ō for|tēs pê|iōrăquĕ | passī mēcum | saepĕ vĭ|rī, || nunc | vīnō | pellĭtĕ | cūrās; crās in|gēns ĭtĕ|rābĭmŭs | aequŏr. Hor. Od. i. 7 (so 28; Ep. 12).
b. The Dactylic Penthemim (five half-feet) consists of half a pentameter verse. It is used in combination with the Hexameter to form the First Archilochian Strophe:— diffū|gērĕ nĭ|vēs, || rĕdĕ|unt iam | grāmĭnă | campīs, arbŏrĭ|busquĕ cŏ|mae; mūtat | terră vĭ|cēs || et | dēcrēs|centĭă | rīpās flūmĭnă | praetérĕ|unt.Hor. Od. iv. 7.

For the Fourth Archilochian Strophe (Archilochian heptameter, alternating with iambic trimeter catalectic), see § 626. 11.

IAMBIC VERSE

Iambic Trimeter

618. The Iambic Trimeter is the ordinary verse of dramatic dialogue. It consists of three measures, each containing a double iambus (iambic dipody). The cæsura is usually in the third foot. > - -|> || - -|> - -
NOTE.—The sign > - denotes possible substitution of an irrational spondee (> -) for an iambus ( -).

a. The Iambic Trimeter is often used in lyric poetry (1) as an independent system, or (2) alternating with the Dimeter to form the Iambic Strophe, as follows:— (1) iam i^am éffĭcā́ |cī || dṓ mănū́s | scĭéntĭaé suppléx ĕt ṓ|rō || rḗgnă pér | Prŏsérpĭnaé, pĕr ét Dĭā́|nae || nṓn mŏvén|dă nū́mĭnắ, pĕr átquĕ líb|rōs || cármĭnúm | văléntĭŭ́m dēfī́xă caé|lō || dḗvŏcā́|rĕ sī́dĕrā́, Cănī́diă, pár|cĕ || vṓcĭbús | tandém săcrī́s, cĭtúmquĕ rét|rŏ || rétrŏ sól|vĕ túrbĭnĕ́m.Hor. Epod. 17. The last two lines may be thus translated, to show the movement in English:— Oh! stay, Canidia, stay thy rites of sorcery, Thy charm unbinding backward let thy swift wheel fly! IAMBIC TRIMETER (2) bĕā́tŭs íl|lĕ || quī́ prŏcúl | nĕgṓtĭī́s, ut prī́scă gḗns | mortā́lĭŭ́m, pătérnă rū́|ră || bū́bŭs éx|ercét sŭī́s, sŏlū́tŭs óm|nī fḗnŏrĕ́; nĕqu^e éxcĭtā́|tur || clássĭcṓ | mīlés trŭcī́, nĕqu^e hórrĕt ī́|rātúm mărĕ́.Hor. Epod. 2.
b. In the stricter form of Iambic Trimeter an irrational spondee (> -) or its equivalent (a cyclic anapæst - or an apparent dactyl > § 609. e) may be regularly substituted for the first iambus of any dipody. A tribrach ( ) may stand for an iambus anywhere except in the last place. In the comic poets any of these forms or the proceleusmatic ( ) may be substituted in any foot except the last:—²⁵⁷ ō lū́cĭs ál|mĕ rḗctŏr || ét | caelī́ dĕcŭ́s ! qu^ i altérnă cúr|rū spắtĭă || flám|mĭfĕr^ o ámbĭēns, illū́strĕ laé|tīs || éxsĕrís | terrī́s căpŭ́t.Sen. Herc. Fur. 592–94. quid quaérĭs ? án|nōs || séxāgín|tā nā́tŭs es.Ter. Haut. 62. hŏmṓ s^um: hūmā́|nī || nī́l ā m^ e ắlĭ| ēnúm pŭtṓ. vel mḗ mŏnḗ | r^e hōc || vél percón|tārī́ pŭtā́.id. 77, 78.
c. The Choliambic (lame Iambic) substitutes a trochee for the last iambus:— ||> - -|> || - -| - - || aequ^ e ést bĕā́|tŭs || ác pŏḗ|mă cúm scrī́bĭt: tam gaúdĕt ín | sē, || támquĕ s^ e íp|sĕ mī́rā́tŭr.Catull. xxiii. 15, 16.
NOTE.—The verse may also be regarded as trochaic with anacrusis: as,— > - -> | - - | -

d. The Iambic Trimeter Catalectic is represented as follows:— ||> - -|> || - -|> -|| It is used in combination with other measures (see § 626. 11), and is shown in the following:— Vulcā́nŭs ā́r|dēns || ū́rĭt óf|fĭcī́ ā́s.Hor. Od. i. 4. or in English:— On purple peaks a deeper shade descending.Scott. PROSODY: VERSIFICATION

Other Iambic Measures

619. Other forms of Iambic verse are the following:—
a. The Iambic Tetrameter Catalectic (Septēnārius). This consists of seven and a half iambic feet, with diæresis after the fourth and with the same substitutions as in Iambic Trimeter:— n^am idcírc^ o arcés|sor, nū́ptĭā́s || quod m^ i ádpărā́ |rī sḗnsĭt. quĭbus quĭ́dĕm quam fắcĭ|lĕ pŏ́tŭĕrát || quĭḗscī s^ i hī́c | quĭḗssĕt!Ter. And. 690, 691. The metrical scheme of these two verses may be represented as follows:— ||> -> -|> - -||> - -|> - || || > | -|| -> -| - || Its movement is like the following:— In g'ood king Ch'arles's g'olden da'ys, when l'oyalt'y no h'arm meant. Vicar of Bray.
b. The Iambic Tetrameter Acatalectic (Octōnārius). This consists of right full iambic feet with the same substitutions as in Iambic Trimeter. Like the Septenarius it is used in lively dialogue:— dīcắt ĕam dắrĕ | nōs Phórmĭṓ|nī || nū́ptum nḗ | suscḗnsĕắt ; et mắgĭs ess^e íl | l^um ĭdṓnĕúm, || qu^ i ipsī́ sit fắmĭ|lĭā́rĭŏ́r.Ter. Ph. 720, 721. The metrical scheme of these two verses may be represented as follows:— ||> > |> - -|>|| -> -|> - || ||> > -| - -||> - > | - ||
c. The Iambic Dimeter. This may be either acatalectic or catalectic.
1. The Iambic Dimeter Acatalectic consists of four iambic feet. It is used in combination with some longer verse (see § 618. a).
2. The Iambic Dimeter Catalectic consists of three and a half iambic feet. It is used only in choruses:— quōnám crŭén|tă Maénās, praecéps ămṓ|rĕ saévō, răpĭtúr quŏd ím|pŏténtī făcĭnús părát | fŭrṓrĕ?Sen. Med. 850–853.
NOTE.—Owing to the fact that in modern music each measure begins with a downward beat, some scholars regard all these forms of Iambic verse as Trochaic verse with anacrusis (§ 618. c. N.).
TROCHAIC VERSE

TROCHAIC VERSE

620. The most common form of Trochaic verse is the Tetrameter Catalectic (Septēnārius), consisting of four dipodies, the last of which lacks a syllable. There is regularly diæresis after the fourth foot:— || - -> | - -> || - -> | - - || In musical notation:—

6 8 | |

ád t^ e adv enĭō, spém, sălū́tem, || consĭlĭ^um, aúxĭlĭ^um éxpĕtḗns.Ter. And. 319. In English verse:— Téll me nót in móurnful númbers || lífe is bút an émpty dreám. Longfellow.
a. In the stricter form of the Septenarius substitutions are allowed only in the even feet, but in comedy the tribrach , or an irrational spondee ->, cyclic dactyl - , or apparent anapæst >, may be substituted for any of the first six feet; a tribrach for the seventh:— ī́tĭd^em hăbét pĕtă|s^um ác vestī́tum: || tám cōnsĭ́mĭlist | átqu^e ĕgŏ́. sū́ră, pḗs, stă| tū́ră, tṓnsŭs, || ŏ́cŭlī, nā́sum, | vél lăbrắ, mā́lae, méntum, | bárbă, cóllus; || tṓtus ! quíd ver | bī́s ŏpúst ? sī́ tergúm cĭ|cā́trīcṓsum, || nihíl hōc sĭ́mĭlist | sĭ́mĭlĭŭ́s.Pl. Am. 443–446. The metrical scheme of these four verses is as follows:— || - | -> ->|| -> >| - - || || - - | - - || > ->| - - || || -> ->| - ->|| -> ->| - - || || -> - | -> ->|| -> >| - ||
b. The Trochaic Tetrameter Acatalectic (Octōnārius), consisting of four complete dipodies, occurs in the lyrical parts of comedy. Substitutions as in the Septenarius are allowed except in the last foot.
c. Some other forms of trochaic verse are found in the lyric poets, in combination with other feet, either as whole lines or parts of lines:— nṓn ĕbúr n e|qu^e aúrĕŭ́m. [Dimeter Catalectic.] mĕā́ rĕnī́|dĕt ín dŏmṓ | lăcū́nắr. [Iambic Trimeter Catalectic.] Hor Od. ii. 18. PROSODY: VERSIFICATION

MIXED MEASURES

621. Different measures may be combined in the same verse in two different ways. Either (1) a series of one kind is simply joined to a series of another kind (compare the changes of rhythm not uncommon in modern music); or (2) single feet of other measures are combined with the prevailing measures, in which case these odd feet are adapted by changing their quantity so that they become irrational (see § 609. e) When enough measures of one kind occur to form a series, we may suppose a change of rhythm ; when they are isolated, we must suppose adaptation. Of the indefinite number of possible combinations but few are found in Latin poetry.

622. The following verses, combining different rhythmical series, are found in Latin lyrical poetry:—
1. Greater Archilochian (Dactylic Tetrameter; Trochaic Tripody):— || - | - | - | - || - | - | - ||

sólvĭtŭr | ā́crĭs hĭ|éms grā|tā́ vĭcĕ || vḗrĭs | ét Fă|vṓnī. — Hor. Od. i. 4.

NOTE.—It is possible that the dactyls were cyclic; but the change of measure seems more probable.

2. Verse consisting of Dactylic Trimeter catalectic (Dactylic Penthemim); Iambic Dimeter:— || - | - | -||> - -|> - -||

scrī́bĕrĕ | vérsĭcŭ|lṓs || ămṓrĕ pér|culsúm grăvī́. — Hor. Epod. 11. 2.

LOGAŒDIC VERSE

623. Trochaic verses, containing in regular prescribed positions irrational measures or irrational feet (cf. § 609. e), are called Logaœdic. The principal logaœdic forms are —
1. Logaœdic Tetrapody (four feet): GLYCONIC.
2. Logaœdic Tripody (three feet): PHERECRATIC (often treated as a syncopated Tetrapody Catalectic).
3. Logaœdic Dipody (two feet): this may be regarded as a short Pherecratic.
NOTE.—This mixture of irrational measures gives an effect approaching that of prose: hence the name Logaœdic (λόγος, ἀοιδή). These measures originated in the Greek lyric poetry, and were adopted by the Romans. All the Roman lyric metres not belonging to the regular iambic, trochaic, dactylic, or Ionic systems, were constructed on the basis of the three forms given above: viz., Logaœdic systems consisting respectively of four, three, and two feet. The so-called Logaœdic Pentapody consists of five feet but is to be regarded as composed of two of the others.
LOGAŒDIC VERSE

624. Each logaœdic form contains a single dactyl,²⁵⁸ which may be either in the first, second, or third place. The verse may be catalectic or acatalectic:—

	Glyconic	Pherecratic
i.	\|\| - \| - \| - \| -( )\|\|	\|\| - \| - \| - ( ) \|\|
ii.	\|\| - \| - \| - \| -( )\|\|	\|\| - \| - \| -( )\|\| or
		\|\| - \| - \| \| -
iii.	\|\| - \| - \| - \| -( )\|\|	\|\| - \| -( )\|\|

NOTE.—The shorter Pherecratic (dipody) ( - | - ), if catalectic, appears to be a simple Choriambus (_ |_ ); and, in general, the effect of the logaœdic forms is Choriambic. In fact, they were so regarded by the later Greek and Latin metricians, and these metres have obtained the general name of Choriambic. But they are not true choriambic, though they may very likely have been felt to be such by the composer, who imitated the forms without much thought of their origin. They may be read (scanned), therefore, on that principle. But it is better to read them as logaœdic measures; and that course is followed here.

625. The verses constructed upon the several Logaœdic form or models are the following:—
1. Glyconic (Second Glyconic, catalectic):— || -> | - | - | -|| | | | (or ) Rṓmae | prī́ncĭpĭs | úrbĭ| ŭ́m. In English:— Fórms more réal than líving mán.Shelley.
NOTE.—In this and most of the succeeding forms the foot preceding the dactyl is always irrational in Horace, consisting of an irrational spondee (_>).

2. Aristophanic (First Pherecratic):— || - | - | - || | | t'emp+er+at | '=or+a | fr'=en=is.Hor. Od. i. 8.
NOTE.—It is very likely that this was made equal in time to the preceding by protracting the last two syllables:—
|| - | - | | - || | | | PROSODY: VERSIFICATION
3. Adonic (First Pherecratic, shortened):— || | - || | Térrŭĭt | úrbĕm.Hor. Or perhaps:— || - | | - || | |
4. Pherecratic (Second Pherecratic):— || -> | - | | || | | | crā́s dōnā́bĕrĭs haédṓ.Hor. Often scanned as follows:— -> | - | -
5. Lesser Asclepiadic (Second Pherecratic with syncope and First Pherecratic catalectic):— || ->| - | || - | - | || Maécēnā́s ătăvī́s ḗdĭtĕ rḗgĭbŭ́s.Hor.
6. Greater Asclepiadic (the same as 5, with a syncopated Logaœdic Dipody interposed):— || ->| - | || - | || - | - | || tū́ nē quaésĭĕrís — scī́rĕ nĕfā́s — quém mĭhĭ, quém tĭbī́.Hor.
7. Lesser Sapphic (Logaœdic Pentapody with dactyl in the third place):— || - | ->| -|| | - | | || íntĕgér vītaé scĕlĕrísquĕ pū́rŭ́s.Hor. Or in English:— Br illiant hópes, all wóven in górgeous t issùes.Longfellow
8. Greater Sapphic (Third Glyconic; First Pherecratic):— || - | ->| - | || - | - | | || tḗ dĕṓs ōrṓ Sy̆bărín || cū́r prŏpĕrā́s ămándṓ.Hor.
9. Lesser Alcaic (Logaœdic Tetrapody, two irrational dactyls, two trochees):— || - | - | - | - || vírgĭnĭbús pŭĕrī́squĕ cántō.Hor. METRES OF HORACE
10. Greater Alcaic (Logaœdic Pentapody, catalectic, with anacrusis, and dactyl in the third place,— compare Lesser Sapphic):— ||> - | ->|| - | - | - || i=ust^um 'et t+en'=acem || pr'=op+os+it'=i v+ir'+um.Hor.
NOTE.—Only the above logaœdic forms are employed by Horace.
11. Phalæcean (Logaœdic Pentapody, with dactyl in the second place):— || ->| - | - | - | - || quaénam tḗ mălă mḗns, mĭséllī Rā́uidī, ắgit praécĭpĭt^em ín mĕṓs ĭámbos?Catull. xl. In English:— Górgeous flo werets ín the súnlight shíning.Longfellow 12. Glyconic Pherecratic (Second Glyconic with syncope, and Second Pherecratic):— || -> | - | - | -|| -> | - | | - || ṓ Cŏlṓnĭă quaé cŭpís || póntĕ lū́dĕrĕ lóngṓ.Catull. xvii.

METRES OF HORACE

626. The Odes of Horace include nineteen varieties of stanza. These are:—
1. Alcaic, consisting of two Greater Alcaics (10), one Trochaic Dimeter with anacrusis, and one Lesser Alcaic (9)²⁵⁹:— iūst^um ét tenā́cem || prṓpositī́ virúm nōn cī́vi^um ā́rdor || prā́va iubéntiúm, nōn vúltus ínstantís tyránnī ménte quatít solidā́, nequ^e Aúster. — Od. iii. 3.

(Found in Od. i. 9, 16, 17, 26, 27, 29, 31, 34, 35, 37; ii. 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13, 14, 15, 17, 19, 20; iii. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 17, 21, 23, 26, 29; iv. 4, 9, 14, 15.)

NOTE.—The Alcaic Strophe is named after the Greek poet Alcæus of Lesbos, and was a special favorite with Horace, of whose Odes thirty-seven are in this form. It is sometimes called the Horatian Stanza.

2. Sapphic (minor), consisting of three Lesser Sapphics (7) and one Adonic (3):— iám satís terrī́s || nivis átque dírae grándinís mīsít || pater ét rubénte déxterā́ sacrā́s || iaculā́tus árcīs .5in térruit úrbem. — Od. i. 2.

(Found in Od. i. 2, 10, 12, 20, 22, 25, 30, 32, 38; ii. 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 16; iii. 8, 11, 14, 18, 20, 22, 27; iv. 2, 6, 11; Carm. Saec.)

PROSODY: VERSIFICATION
NOTE.—The Sapphic Stanza is named after the poetess Sappho of Lesbos, and was a great favorite with the ancients. It is used by Horace in twenty-five Odes — more frequently than any other except the Alcaie.

3. Sapphic (major), consisting of one Aristophanic (2) and one Greater Sapphic (8):— Lȳ́dia dī́c, per ómnī́s tḗ deṓs ōrṓ, Sybarín || cū́r properā́s amándṓ. — Od. i. 8.
4. Asclepiadean I (minor), consisting of Lesser Asclepiadics (5):— éxēgī́ monumént^um || aére perénniús rḗgālī́que sitū́ || pȳ́ramid^um áltiús. — Od. iii. 30.

(Found in Od. i. 1; iii. 30; iv. 8.)

5. Asclepiadean II, consisting of one Glyconic (1) and one Lesser Asclepiadic (5):— nā́vis quaé tibi crḗditúm dḗbēs Vérgiliúm, || fī́nibus átticī́s réddās íncolumém, precór, ét servḗs animaé || d īmidiúm meaé. — Od. i. 3. NONOTE in Od. i. 3, 13, 19, 36; iii. 9, 15, 19, 24, 25, 28; iv. i, 3.)
6. Asclepiadean III, consisting of three Lesser Asclepiadics (5) and one Glyconic (1):— quís dēsī́deriṓ || sít pudor aút modús tám cārī́ capitís ? || praécipe lū́gubrī́s cántūs, Mélpomenḗ, || cuí liquidám patér vṓcem cúm citharā́ dedít. — Od. i. 24.

(Found in Od. i. 6, 15, 24, 33; ii. 12; iii. 10, 16; iv. 5, 12.)

7. Asclepiadean IV, consisting of two Lesser Asclepiadics (5), one Pherecratic (4), and one Glyconic (1):— ṓ fōns Bándusiaé || spléndidiór vitrṓ, dúlcī dī́gne merṓ, || nṓn sine flṓribús, crā́s dōnā́beris haēdṓ cuí frōns túrgida córnibús. — Od. iii. 13.

(Found in Od. i. 5, 14, 21, 23; iii. 7, 13; iv. 13.)

8. Asclepiadean V (major), consisting of Greater Asclepiadics (6):— tū́ nē quaésierís, || scī́re nefā́s ! || quém mihi, quém tibī́ fī́nem dī́ dederínt, || Leúconoḗ, || néc Babylṓniṓs téntārís numerṓs. — Od. i. 11.

(Found in Od. i. 11, 18; iv. 10.)

9. Alcmanian, consisting of Dactylic Hexameter (§ 615) alternating with Tetrameter (§ 617. a). (Od. i. 7, 28; Epod. 12.) METRES OF HORACE
10. Archilochian I, consisting of a Dactylic Hexameter alternating with a Dactylic Penthemim (see § 617. b). (Od. iv. 7.)
11. Archilochian IV, consisting of a Greater Archilochian (heptameter, § 622. 1), followed by Iambic Trimeter Catalectic (§ 618. d). The stanza consists of two pairs of verses:— sólvitur ā́cris hiéms grātā́ vice || Vḗris ét Favṓnī,   trahúntque síccās || mā́chinaé carī́nā́s; ác neque iám stabul īs gaudét pecus, || aút arā́tor ī́gnī,   nec prā́ta cā́nīs || álbicánt pruī́n īs. — Od. i. 4.
12. Iambic Trimeter alone (see § 618). (Epod. 17.)
13. Iambic Strophe (see § 618. a). (Epod. 1–10.)
14. Dactylic Hexameter alternating with Iambic Dimeter:— nóx erat, ét caelṓ || fulgḗbat lū́na serḗnō   intér minṓra sī́derá, cúm tū, mā́gnōrúm || nūmén laesū́ra deṓrum,   in vérba iū́rābā́s meá. — Epod. 15. (So in Epod. 14.)
15. Dactylic Hexameter with Iambic Trimeter (§ 618):— áltera iám teritúr || bell īs cīv īlibus aétās,   su īs et ípsa R ōma || v īribús ruít. — Epod. 16.
16. Verse of Four Lesser Ionics (§ 609. c. 2):— miserār^um est | nequ^e amōrī | dare lūdum | neque dulcī mala vīnō | laver^e aut ex|animārī | metuentīs. — Od. iii. 12.
17. Iambic Trimeter (§ 618); Dactylic Penthemim (§ 617. b); Iambic Dimeter:—   Pettī́, nihíl mē || sī́cut ánteā́ iuvát scrī́bere vérsiculṓs || amṓre pérculsúm gravī́. — Epod. 11.
18. Dactylic Hexameter; Iambic Dimeter; Dactylic Penthemim (§ 617. b):   hórrida témpestā́s || caelúm contrā́xit, et ímbrēs nivḗsque dḗdūcúnt Iovém ; || núnc mare, núnc silüaé …Epod. 13.
19. Trochaic Dimeter, Iambic Trimeter, each catalectic (see § 620. c).

INDEX TO THE METRES OF HORACE

LIB. I

1. Maecēnās atavīs: 4.	8. L&ymacr;dia dīc: 3.
2. Iam satis terrīs: 2.	9. Vidēs ut altā: 1.
3. Sīc tē dīva: 5.	10. Mercurī fācunde nepōs: 2.
4. Solvitur ācris hiems: 11.	11. Tū nē quaesieris: 8.
5. Quis multā: 7.	12. Quem virum: 2.
6. Scrībēris Variō: 6.	13. Cum tū L ydia: 5.
7. Laudābunt aliī: 9.	14. Ō nāvis: 7.

PROSODY: VERSIFICATION

15. Pāstor cum traheret: 6.	27. Nātīs in ūsum: 1.
16. O mātre pulchrā: 1.	28. Tē maris: 9.
17. Vēlōx amoenum: 1.	29. Iccī beātīs: 1.
18. Nūllam Vāre: 8.	30. Ō Venus: 2.
19. Māter saeva: 5.	31. Quid dēdicātum: 1.
20. Vīle pōtābis: 2.	32. Poscimur: 2.
21. Dīānam tenerae: 7.	33. Albī nē doleās: 6.
22. Integer vītae: 2.	34. Parcus deōrum: 1.
23. Vītās īnuleō: 7.	35. Ō dīva: 1.
24. Quis dēsīderiō: 6.	36. Et tūre: 5.
25. Parcius iūnctās: 2.	37. Nunc est bibendum: 1.
26. Mūsīs amīcus: 1.	38. Persicōs ōdī: 2.

LIB. II

1. Mōtum ex Metellō: 1.	11. Quid bellicōsus: 1.
2. Nūllus argentō: 2.	12. Nōlīs longa: 6.
3. Aequam mementō. 1.	13. Ille et nefāstō: 1.
4. Nē sit ancillae: 2.	14. Ēheu fugācēs: 1.
5. Nōndum subāctā: 1.	15. Iam pauca: 1.
6. Septimī Gādēs: 2.	16. Ōtium dīvōs: 2.
7. Ō saepe mēcum: 1.	17. Cūr mē querellīs: 1.
8. Ūlla sī iūris: 2.	18. Nōn ebur: 19.
9. Nōn semper imbrēs: 1.	19. Bacchum in remōtīs: 1.
10. Rēctius vīvēs: 2.	20. Nōn ūsitātā: 1.

LIB. III

1. Ōdī profānum: 1.	16. Inclūsam Danaēn: 6.
2. Angustam amīcē: 1.	17. Aelī vetustō: 1.
3. Iūstum et tenācem: 1.	18. Faune nymphārum: 2.
4. Dēscende caelō: 1.	19. Quantum dīstet: 5.
5. Caelō tonantem: 1.	20. Nōn vidēs: 2.
6. Dēlicta mâiōrum: 1.	21. Ō nāta mēcum: 1.
7. Quid flēs: 7.	22. Montium cūstōs: 2.
8. Mārtiis caelebs: 2.	23. Caelō supīnās: 1.
9. Dōnec grātus: 5.	24. Intāctīs opulentior: 5.
10. Extrēmum Tanain: 6.	25. Quō mē Bacche: 5.
11. Mercurī nam tē: 2.	26. Vīxī puellīs: 1.
12. Miserārum est: 16.	27. Impiōs parrae: 2.
13. Ō fōns Bandusiae: 7.	28. Fēstō quid: 5.
14. Herculis rītū: 2.	29. Tyrrhēna rēgum: 1.
15. Uxor pauperis: 5.	30. Exēgī monumentum: 4.

LIB. IV

1. Intermissa Venus: 5.	9. Nē forte crēdās: 1.
2. Pindarum quisquis: 2.	10. Ō crūdēlis adhūc: 8.
3. Quem tū Melpomenē: 5.	11. Est mihī nōnum: 2.
4. Quālem ministrum: 1.	12. Iam vēris comitēs: 6.
5. Dīvīs orte bonīs: 6.	13. Audīvēre Lycē: 7.
6. Dīve quem prōlēs: 2.	14. Quae cūra patrum: 1.
7. Diffūgēre nivēs: 10.	15. Phoebus volentem: 1.
8. Dōnārem paterās: 4.	Carmen Saeculāre: 2.

MISCELLANEOUS

EPODES

1. ībis Liburnīs: 13.	10. Malā solūta: 13.
2. Beātus ille: 13.	11. Pettī nihil: 17.
3. Parentis ōlim: 13.	12. Quid tibi vīs: 9.
4. Lupīs et āgnīs: 13.	13. Horrida tempestās: 18.
5. At ō deōrum: 13.	14. Mollis inertia: 14.
6. Quid immerentīs: 13.	15. Nox erat: 14.
7. Quō quō scelestī: 13.	16. Altera iam: 15.
8. Rogāre longō: 13.	17. Iam iam efficācī: 12.
9. Quandō repostum: 13.

MISCELLANEOUS

628. Other measures occur in various styles of poetry.
a. Anapæstic (§ 609. b. 2) verses of various lengths are found in dramatic poetry. The spondee, dactyl, or proceleusmatic may be substituted for the anapæst:— hĭc hŏmṓst | omnĭ^um hŏ́mĭ|num praé|cĭpŭŏ́s vŏlŭptā́ |tĭbŭs gaú|diīsqu^e án|tĕpŏtḗns. ĭtă cóm|mŏdă quaé | cŭpĭ^ō ḗ |vĕnĭúnt, quŏd ăg ṓ | sŭbĭt, ád|sĕcŭḗ | sĕquĭtŭ́r: ĭtă gaú|dium súp|pĕdĭtắt.Pl. Trin. 1115–1119.
b. Bacchiac (§ 609. d. 4) verses (five-timed) occur in the dramatic poets,— very rarely in Terence, more commonly in Plautus,— either in verses of two feet (Dimeter) or of four (Tetrameter). They are treated very freely, as are PROSODY: VERSIFICATION all measures in early Latin. The long syllables may be resolved, or the molossus (three longs) substituted:— multā́s rēs | sĭmī́t^ū in | mĕó cor|dĕ vórsō, mult^um ín cō|gĭtándō | dŏlṓr^em in|dĭpī́scŏr. ĕgŏmét mē | cōg^ō ét mā|cĕr^ō ét dē|fătī́gō; măgíster | mĭh^i éxer|cĭtṓr ănĭ|mŭs núnc est. Pl. Trin. 223–226.
c. Cretic measures (§ 609. d. 1) occur in the same manner as the Bacchiac, with the same substitutions. The last foot is usually incomplete:— ắmŏr ămī|cús mĭhī | nḗ fŭās | úmquăm. hī́s ĕgō | d^ē ártĭbus | grā́tĭam | fắcĭō. nī́l ĕg^o is|tṓs mŏror | faécĕōs | mṓrēs.id. 267, 293, 297.
d. Saturnian Verse. In early Latin is found a rude form of verse, not borrowed from the Greek like the others, but as to the precise nature of which scholars are not agreed.²⁶⁰
1. According to one view the verse is based on quantity, is composed of six feet, and is divided into two parts by a cæsura before the fourth thesis. Each thesis may consist of a long syllable or of two short ones, each arsis of a short syllable, a long syllable, or two short syllables; but the arsis, except at the beginning of the verse and before the cæsura, is often entirely suppressed, though rarely more than once in the same verse:— dăbúnt mălúm Mĕtéllī || Naévĭṓ pŏḗtae.
2. According to another theory the Saturnian is made up, without regard to quantity, of alternating accented and unaccented syllables; but for any unaccented syllable two may be substituted, and regularly are so substituted in the second foot of the verse:— dábunt málum Metéllī || Naéviṓ poḗtae.

EARLY PROSODY

629. The prosody of the earlier poets differs in several respects from that of the later.²⁶¹
a. At the end of words s, being only feebly sounded, does not make position with a following consonant; it sometimes disappeared altogether. This usage continued in all poets till Cicero's time (§ 15. 7). EARLY PROSODY
b. A long syllable immediately preceded or followed by the ictus may be shortened (iambic shortening):—

1. In a word of two syllables of which the first is short (this effect remained in a few words like pută, cavĕ, valĕ, vidĕ, egŏ, modŏ, duŏ²⁶²):—

ắbĭ (Ter. Ph. 59); b'+on+i (id. 516); h+om+o su'=avis (id. 411).

2. If it is either a monosyllable or the first syllable of a word which 2. is preceded by a short monosyllable:—

s ed hăs tabellās (Pl. Pers. 195); qu'+id h+ic nunc (id. Epid. 157); p+er +inpl'=uvium (Ter. Ph. 707); +eg^o +ost'enderem (id. 793).

3. When preceded by a short initial syllable in a word of more than three syllables:—

v+en+ust'=atis

c. In a few isolated words position is often disregarded.²⁶³ Such are ĭlle, ĭmmo, ĭnde, ĭste, ŏmnis, nĕmpe, quĭppe, ŭnde.
d. The original long quantity of some final syllables is retained.
1. The ending -or is retained long in nouns with long stem-vowel (original r-stems or original s-stems):—

módo quom díct^a in m^ē íngerḗbās ódium nṓn uxṓr erám (Pl. Asin. 927).

íta m^ī in péctor^e átque córde fácit amṓr incéndiúm (id. Merc. 500).

átque quántō nóx fuístī lóngiṓr hāc próxumā́ (id. Am. 548).

2. The termination -es (-ĭtis) is sometimes retained long, as in mīlēs, superstēs.
3. All verb-endings in -r, -s, and -t may be retained long where the vowel is elsewhere long in inflection:—

régrediṓr audī́sse mḗ (Pl. Capt. 1023); 'atqu^e ut qu'i fuer=is et qu'=i nunc (id. 248); m=e n'=omin'=at haec (id. Epid. iv. 1. 8); faci'=at ut s'emper (id. Poen. ii. 42); =infusc=ab=at, am=ab=o (cretics, id. Cist. i. 21); qu=i amēt (id. Merc. 1021); ut fī́t in b'ell=o c'apitur 'alter f'=ili'us (id. Capt. 25); tibi sī́t ad m'=e rev'=is'=as (id. Truc. ii. 4. 79).

e. Hiatus (§ 612. g) is allowed somewhat freely, especially at a pause in the sense, or when there is a change of speaker.²⁶⁴ MISCELLANEOUS

MISCELLANEOUS

Reckoning of Time

630. The Roman Year was designated, in earlier times, by the names of the Consuls; but was afterwards reckoned from the building of the City (ab urbe conditā, annō urbis conditae), the date of which was assigned by Varro to a period corresponding with B.C. 753. In order, therefore, to reduce Roman dates to those of the Christian era, the year of the city is to be subtracted from 754: e.g. A.U.C. 691 (the year of Cicero's consulship) corresponds to B.C. 63. Before Cæsar's reform of the Calendar (B.C. 46), the Roman year consisted of 355 days: March, May, Qu=int=ilis (July), and October having each 31 days, February having 28, and each of the remainder 29. As this calendar year was too short for the solar year, the Romans, in alternate years, at the discretion of the pontificēs, inserted a month of varying length (mēnsis intercalāris) after February 23, and omitted the rest of February. The ``Julian year,'' by Cæsar's reformed Calendar, had 365 days, divided into months as at present. Every fourth year the 24th of February (VI. Kal. M=art.) was counted twice, giving 29 days to that month: hence the year was called bissextīlis. The month Qu=int=ilis received the name Iūlius (July), in honor of Julius Cæsar; and Sext=ilis was called Augustus (August), in honor of his successor. The Julian year (see below) remained unchanged till the adoption of the Gregorian Calendar (A.D. 1582), which omits leap-year three times in every four hundred years.

631. Dates, according to the Roman Calendar, are reckoned as follows:—
a. The first day of the month was called Kalendae (Calends).
NOTE.—Kalendae is derived from calāre, to call,— the Calends being the day on which the pontiffs publicly announced the New Moon in the Comitia Calāta. This they did, originally, from actual observation.

b. On the fifteenth day of March, May, July, and October, but the thirteenth of the other months, were the īdūs (Ides), the day of Full Moon.
c. On the seventh day of March, May, July, and October, but the fifth of the other months, were the Nōnae (Nones or ninths).
d. From the three points thus determined, the days of the month were reckoned backwards as so many days before the Nones, the Ides, or the Calends. The point of departure was, by Roman custom, counted in the reckoning, the second day being three days before, etc. This gives the following rule for determining the date:—

If the given date be Calends, add two to the number of days in the month preceding,— if Nones or Ides, add one to that of the day on which they fall,— and from the number thus ascertained subtract the given date. Thus,—

VIII. Kal. Feb. (31 2 - 8) J̄̆an. 25. IV. Nōn. Mār. (7 1 - 4) M̄̆ar. 4. IV. īd. Sept. (13 1 - 4) S̄̆ept. 10. CALENDAR
NOTE.—The name of the month appears as an adjective in agreement with Kalendae, Nōnae, īdūs.

For peculiar constructions in dates, see § 424. g.

e. The days of the Roman month by the Julian Calendar, as thus ascertained, are given in the following table:— *begintabularp1.2inl p1.2inl p1.2inl p1.2inl January February March April 1. KAL. I=AN. KAL. FEB. KAL. M=ARTIAE KAL. APR=iL=ES 2. IV. N=on. I=an. IV. N=on. Feb. VI. N=on. M=art. IV. N=on. Apr. 3. III. `` `` III. `` `` V. `` `` III. `` `` 4. pr=id. `` `` pr=id. `` `` IV. `` `` pr=id. `` `` 5. N=ON. I=AN. N=ON. FEB. III. `` `` N=ON. APRÏL=ES 6. VIII. =id. I=an. VIII. =id. Feb. pr=id. `` `` VIII. =id. Apr. 7. VII. `` `` VII. `` `` N=ON. M=ARTIAE VII. `` `` 8. VI. `` `` VI. `` `` VIII. =id. M=art. VI. `` `` 9. V. ` V. `` `` VII. `` `` V. `` `` 10. IV. `` `` IV. `` `` VI. `` `` IV. `` `` 11. III. `` `` III. `` `` V. `` `` III. `` `` 12. pr=id. `` `` pr=id. `` `` IV. `` `` pr=id. `` `` 13. =iD=US I=AN. =iD=US FEB. III. `` `` =iD=US APR=iL=ES. 14. XIX. Kal. Feb. XVI. Kal. M=arti=as pr=id. `` `` XVIII. Kal. M=ai=as. 15. XVIII. `` `` XV. `` `` ÏD=US M=ARTIAE XVII. `` `` 16. XVII. `` `` XIV. `` `` XVII. Kal. Apr=il=is. XVI. `` `` 17. XVI. `` `` XIII. `` `` XVI. `` `` XV. `` `` 18. XV. `` `` XII. `` `` XV. `` `` XIV. `` `` 19. XIV. `` `` XI. `` `` XIV. `` `` XIII. `` `` 20. XIII. `` `` X. `` `` XIII. `` `` XII. `` `` 21. XII. `` `` IX. `` `` XII. `` `` XI. `` 22. XI. `` `` VIII. `` `` XI. `` `` X. `` `` 23. X. `` `` VII. `` `` X. `` `` IX. `` `` 24. IX. `` `` VI. `` `` IX. `` `` VIII. `` `` 25. VIII. `` `` V. `` `` VIII. `` `` VII. `` `` 26. VII. `` `` IV. `` `` VII. `` `` VI. `` `` 27. VI. `` `` III. `` `` VI. `` `` V. `` `` 28. V. `` `` pr=id. `` `` V. `` `` IV. `` `` 29. IV. `` `` [pr=id. Kal. M=art. in IV. `` `` III. `` `` 30. III. `` `` leap-year, the VI. III. `` `` prid. `` `` 31. pr=id. `` `` Kal. (24th) being pr=id. `` `` (So June, Sept., (So Aug., Dec.) counted twice.] (So May, July, Oct.) Nov.) *endtabular
NOTE.—Observe that a date before the Julian Reform (B.C. 46) is to be found not by the above table, but by taking the earlier reckoning of the number of days in the month.

Measures of Value, etc.

632. The money of the Romans was in early times wholly of copper. The unit was the as, which was nominally a pound in weight, but actually somewhat less. It was divided into twelve unciae (ounces). MISCELLANEOUS In the third century B.C. the as was gradually reduced to one-half of its original value. In the same century silver coins were introduced,— the dēnārius and the sēstertius. The denarius = 10 asses; the sestertius = 2 12 asses.

633. The Sestertius was probably introduced at a time when the as had been so far reduced that the value of the new coin (2 12 asses) was equivalent to the original value of the as. Hence, the Sestertius (usually abreviated to IIS or HS) came to be used as the unit of value, and nummus, coin, often means simply sēstertius. As the reduction of the standard went on, the sestertius became equivalent to 4 asses. Gold was introduced later, the aureus being equal to 100 sesterces. The approximate value of these coins is seen in the following table:— 2 12 asses 1 s̄ēstertius or nummus, value nearly 5 cents (2 12 d.). 10 asses or 4 sēstertiī 1 d̄ēnarius. 20 (10 d̀̀̀̀̀̀.). 1000 sēstertiī 1 s̄ēstertium …̀̀ ̀̀ $50.00 ( 10).
NOTE.—The word sēstertius is a shortened form of sēmis-tertius, the third one, a half. The abbreviation IIS or HS = duo et sēmis, two and a half.

634. The sēstertium (probably originally the genitive plural of sēstertius depending on mīlle) was a sum of money, not a coin; the word is inflected regularly as a neuter noun: thus, tria sēstertia = $150.00. When sēstertium is combined with a numeral adverb, centēna mīlia, hundreds of thousands, is to be understood: thus deciēns sēstertium (deciēns HS) = deciēns centēna mīlia sēstertium = $50,000. Sēstertium in this combination may also be inflected: deciēns sēstertiī, sēstertiō, etc. In the statement of large sums sēstertium is often omitted as well as centēna mīlia: thus sexāgiēns (Rosc. Am. 2) signifies, sexāgiēns [centēna mīlia sēstertium] = 6,000,000 sesterces = $300,000(nearly).

635. In the statement of sums of money in Roman numerals, a line above the number indicates thousands; lines above and at the sides also, hundred-thousands. Thus HS DC = 600 sēstertiī; HS DC = 600,000 sēstertiī, or 600 sēstertia; HS | DC| = 60,000,000 sēstertiī, or 60,000 sēstertia.

636. The Roman Measures of Length are the following:— 12 inches (unciae) 1 R̄oman Foot (pēs: 11.65 English inches). 1 12 Feet 1 C̄ubit (cubitum). — 2 12 Feet 1 S̄tep (gradus). 5 Feet 1 P̄ace (passus). — 1000 Paces (mīlle passuum) 1 M̄ile. MEASURES OF WEIGHT AND CAPACITY The Roman mile was equal to 4850 English feet. The iūgerum, or unit of measure of land, was an area of 240 (Roman) feet long and 120 broad; a little less than 23 of an English acre.

637. The Measures of Weight are —

12 unciae (ounces) = one pound (libra, about 34 lb. avoirdupois).

Fractional parts (weight or coin) are — *begintabularp1.5in p1.5in p1.5in 11 2, uncia. 51 2, quīncunx. 34, d=odr=ans. 16, sextāns. 12, sēmis. 56, dextāns. 14, quadrāns. 71 2, septunx. 1 11 2, deunx. 13, triēns. 23, bēs or bēssis. 1 21 2, as. *endtabular The Talent (talentum) was a Greek weight (τάλαντον) = 60 librae.

638. The Measures of Capacity are —

12 cyathī ̄ 1 sextārius (nearly a pint).

16 sextāriī ̄ 1 modius (peck).

6 sextāriī ̄ 1 congius (3 quarts, liquid measure).

8 congiī ̄ 1 amphora (6 gallons).

GLOSSARY

OF TERMS USED IN GRAMMAR, RHETORIC, AND PROSODY

639. Many of these terms are pedantic names given by early grammarians to forms of speech used naturally by writers who were not conscious that they were using figures at all — as, indeed, they were not. Thus when one says, ``It gave me no little pleasure,'' he is unconsciously using litotes; when he says, ``John went up the street, James down,'' antithesis; when he says, ``High as the sky,'' hyperbole. Many were given under a mistaken notion of the nature of the usage referred to. Thus mēd and tēd (§ 143. a. N.) were supposed to owe their d to paragoge, sūmpsī its p to epenthesis. Such a sentence as ``See my coat, how well it fits!'' was supposed to be an irregularity to be accounted for by prolepsis. Many of these, however, are convenient designations for phenomena which often occur; and most of them have an historic interest, of one kind or another. 640. Grammatical Terms =0pt =1em =1 Anacoluthon: a change of construction in the same sentence, leaving the first part broken or unfinished. Anastrophe: inversion of the usual order of words. Apodosis: the conclusion of a conditional sentence (see Protasis). Archaism: an adoption of old or obsolete forms. Asyndeton: omission of conjunctions (§ 323. b). Barbarism: adoption of foreign or unauthorized forms. Brachylogy: brevity of expression. Crasis: contraction of two vowels into one (§ 15. 3). Ellipsis: omission of a word or words necessary to complete the sense. Enallage: substitution of one word or form for another. Epenthesis: insertion of a letter or syllable. Hellenism: use of Greek forms or constructions. Hendiadys (ὲ̔ν διὰ δυο~ιν): the use of two nouns, with a conjunction, instead of a single modified noun. Hypallage: interchange of constructions. Hysteron proteron: a reversing of the natural order of ideas.

This term was applied to cases where the natural sequence of events is violated in language because the later event is of more importance than the earlier and so comes first to the mind. This was supposed to be an artificial embellishment in Greek, and so was imitated in Latin. It is still found in artless narrative; cf. ``Bred and Born in a Brier Bush'' (Uncle Remus).

=0pt =1em =1 Metathesis: transposition of letters in a word. Paragoge: addition of a letter or letters to the end of a word. Parenthesis: insertion of a phrase interrupting the construction. RHETORICAL FIGURES Periphrasis: a roundabout way of expression (circumlocution). Pleonasm: the use of needless words. Polysyndeton: the use of an unnecessary number of copulative conjunctions. Prolepsis: the use of a word in the clause preceding the one where it would naturally appear (anticipation). Protasis: a clause introduced by a conditional expression (if, when, whoever), leading to a conclusion called the Apodosis (§ 512). Syncope: omission of a letter or syllable from the middle of a word. Synesis (c=onstr=ucti=o ad s=ensum): agreement of words according to the sense, and not the grammatical form (§ 280. a). Tmesis: the separation of the two parts of a compound word by other words (cutting).

This term came from the earlier separation of prepositions (originally adverbs) from the verbs with which they were afterwards joined; so in per ecastor scītus puer, a very fine boy, egad! As this was supposed to be intentional, it was ignorantly imitated in Latin; as in cere- comminuit -brum (Ennius).

=0pt =1em =1 Zeugma: the use of a verb or an adjective with two different words, to only one of which it strictly applies (yoking). 641. Rhetorical Figures =0pt =1em =1 Allegory: a narrative in which abstract ideas figure as circumstances, events, or persons, in order to enforce some moral truth. Alliteration: the use of several words that begin with the same sound. Analogy: argument from resemblances. Anaphora: the repetition of a word at the beginning of successive clauses (§ 598. f). Antithesis: opposition, or contrast of parts (for emphasis: § 598. f). Antonomasia: use of a proper for a common noun, or the reverse:— sint Maecēnātēs, nōn deerunt, Flacce, Marōnēs, so there be patrons (like Mæcenas), poets (like Virgil) will not be lacking, Flaccus (Mart. viii. 56. 5). illa furia et pestis, that fury and plague (i.e. Clodius); Homēromastīx, scourge of Homer (i.e. Zoilus). Aposiopesis: an abrupt pause for rhetorical effect. Catachresis: a harsh metaphor (abūsiō, misuse of words). Chiasmus: a reversing of the order of words in corresponding pairs of phrases (§ 598. f). Climax: a gradual increase of emphasis, or enlargement of meaning. Euphemism: the mild expression of a painful or repulsive idea:— sī quid eī acciderit, if anything happens to him (i.e. if he dies). Euphony: the choice of words for their agreeable sound. Hyperbaton: violation of the usual order of words. GLOSSARY Hyperbole: exaggeration for rhetorical effect. Irony: the use of words which naturally convey a sense contrary to what is meant. Litotes: the affirming of a thing by denying its contrary (§ 326. c). Metaphor: the figurative use of words, indicating an object by some resemblance. Metonymy: the use of the name of one thing to indicate some kindred thing Onomatopœia: a fitting of sound to sense in the use of words. Oxymoron: the use of contradictory words in the same phrase:—

īnsāniēns sapientia, foolish wisdom.

Paronomasia: the use of words of like sound. Prosopopœia: personification. Simile: a figurative comparison (usually introduced by like, or as). Synchysis: the interlocked order (§ 598. h). Synecdoche: the use of the name of a part for the whole, or the reverse. 642. Terms of Prosody =0pt =1em =1 Acatalectic: complete, as a verse or a series of feet (§ 612. a). Anaclasis: breaking up of rhythm by substituting different measures. Anacrusis: the unaccented syllable or syllables preceding a verse (§ 608. g) Antistrophe: a series of verses corresponding to one which has gone before (cf. strophe). Arsis: the unaccented part of a foot (§ 611). Basis: a single foot preceding the regular movement of a verse. Cœsura: the ending of a word within a metrical foot (§ 611. b). Catalectic: see Catalexis. Catalexis: loss of a final syllable (or syllables) making the series catalectic (incomplete, § 612. a). Contraction: the use of one long syllable for two short (§ 610). Correption: shortening of a long syllable, for metrical reasons. Diœresis: the coincidence of the end of a foot with the end of a word within the verse (§ 611. c). Dialysis: the use of i (consonant) and v as vowels (silüa s̄ilva, § 603. f. N.^4). Diastole: the lengthening of a short syllable by emphasis (§ 612. b). Dimeter: consisting of two like measures. Dipody: consisting of two like feet. Distich: a system or series of two verses. Ecthlipsis: the suppression of a final syllable in -m before a word beginning with a vowel (§ 612. f). Elision: the cutting off of a final before a following initial vowel (§ 612. e). Heptameter: consisting of seven feet. TERMS OF PROSODY Hexameter: consisting of six measures. Hexapody: consisting of six feet. Hiatus: the meeting of two vowels without contraction or elision (§ 612. g). Ictus: the metrical accent (§ 611. a). Irrational: not conforming strictly to the unit of time (§ 609. e). Logaœdic: varying in rhythm, making the effect resemble prose (§ 623). Monometer: consisting of a single measure. Mora: the unit of time, equal to one short syllable (§ 608. a). Pentameter: consisting of five measures. Pentapody: consisting of five feet. Penthemimeris: consisting of five half-feet. Protraction: extension of a syllable beyond its normal length (608. c). Resolution: the use of two short syllables for one long (§ 610). Strophe: a series of verses making a recognized metrical whole (stanza), which may be indefinitely repeated. Synœresis: i (vowel) and u becoming consonants before a vowel (§ 603. c. N., f. N. 4). Synalœpha: the same as elision (§ 612. e. N.). Synapheia: elision between two verses (§ 612. e. N.). Syncope: loss of a short vowel. Synizesis: the running together of two vowels without full contraction (§ 603 c. N.). Systole: shortening of a syllable regularly long. Tetrameter: consisting of four measures. Tetrapody: consisting of four feet. Tetrastich: a system of four verses. Thesis: the accented part of a foot (§ 611). Trimeter: consisting of three measures. Tripody: consisting of three feet. Tristich: a system of three verses. = #1 =2em =3em =1 = =3em =1 #1 =0pt .5in INDEX OF VERBS

INDEX OF VERBS

Regular verbs of the First, Second, and Fourth Conjugations are given only in special cases. Compounds are usually omitted when they are conjugated like the simple verbs. The figures after the verbs indicate the conjugation. References are to sections. For classified lists of important verbs see § 209 (First Conjugation), § 210 (Second Conjugation), § 211 (Third Conjugation), § 212 (Fourth Conjugation), §§ 190, 191 (Deponents), § 192 (Semi-Deponents). =0pt =7pt =1 = =7pt =1

.9īn ab-dō, 3, -didī, -ditum, 209. a. N. ab-eō, see eō. ab-iciō, 3, -iēcī, -iectum [iaciō]. ab-igō, 3, -ēgī, -āctum [agō]. ab-nuō, 3, -nuī, —. ab-oleō, 2, -ēvī, -itum. ab-olēscō, 3, -ēvī, — [aboleō]. ab-ripiō, 3, -ripuī, -reptum [rapiō]. abs-condō, 3, -dī (-didī), -ditum [condō]. ab-sisto, 3, -stitī, —. ab-sum, abesse, āfuī, (āfutūrus). ac-cendō, 3, -cendī, -cēnsum. accersō, see arcessō. ac-cidit (impers.), 207, 208. c. ac-cidō, 3, -cĭdī, — [cadō]. ac-cīdō, 3, -cīdī, -cīsum [caedō]. ac-ciō, 4, reg. [ciō]. ac-cipiō, 3, -cēpī, -ceptum [capiō]. ac-colō, 3, -uī, —. ac-crēdō, see crēdō. ac-cumbō, 3, -cubuī, -itum. ac-currō, 3, -currī (-cucurrī), -cursum. acēscō, 3, -acuī, — [co-]. ac-quīrō, 3, -quīsīvī, -quīsītum [quaerō]. acuō, 3, -uī, -ūtum, 174, 176. d. ad-do, 3, -didī, -ditum, 209. a. N. ad-eō, see eō. ad-hibeō, 2, -uī, -itum [habeō]. ad-igō, 3, -ēgī, -āctum [agō]. ad-imō, 3, -ēmī, -ēmptum [emō]. ad-ipīscor, -ī, -eptus. ad-nuō, 3, -nuī, —. ad-oleō, 2, -uī, —. ad-olēscō, 3, -ēvī, -ultum. ad-sentior, -īrī, -sēnsus. ad-sideō, 2, -sēdī, -sessum [sedeō]. ad-sīdō, 3, -sēdī, —. ad-spergō, 3, -spersī, -spersum [spargō]. ad-stō, 1, -stitī, —. ad-sum, -esse, -fuī, (-futūrus). af-fārī, affātus, 206. c. af-ferō, -ferre, attulī, allātum. af-ficiō, 3, -fēcī, -fectum [faciō].

.9īn af-flīgō, 3, -xī, -ctum. ag-gredior, -ī, -gressus [gradior]. āgnōscō, 3, -ōvī, āgnĭtum [nōscō]. agō, 3, ēgī, āctum. [For regular comps., see ab-igō; for others, see cōgō, circum-, per-.] aiō, defect., 206. a. albeō, 2, -uī, —. alēscō, 3, -uī, -alitum. algeō, 2, alsī, —. algēscō, 3, alsī, —. al-legō, 3, -ēgī, -ēctum. al-liciō, 3, -lexī, —. alō, 3, aluī, altum (alitum). amb-igō, 3, —, — [agō]. ambiō, -īre, -iī (-īvī), -ītum (ambībat), 203. d. amiciō, 4, amixī (-cuī), amictum. amō, 180, 184; amārim, amāsse, amāssem, 181. a; amāssis, 183. 5. angō, 3, ānxī, —. ante-cellō, 3, —, —. ante-stō, 1, -stetī, —. anti-stō, 1, -stetī, —. aperiō, 4, aperuī, apertum. apīscor, -ī, aptus [ad-ipīscor]. ap-pellō, 3, -pulī, -pulsum. ap-petō, 3, -petīvī (-iī), -ītum. ap-primō, 3, -pressī, -pressum [premō]. arceō, 2, -uī, — [co-erceō]. arcessō (accersō), 3, -īvī, arcessītum. ārdeō, 2, ārsī, (ārsūrus). ārdēscō, 3, ārsī, —. āreō, 2, —, —. ārēscō, 3, -āruī, —. arguō, 3, -uī, -ūtum. ar-rigō, 3, -rēxī, -rēctum [regō]. ar-ripiō, 3, -uī, -reptum [rapiō]. a-scendō, 3, -dī, -scēnsum [scandō]. a-spergō, see ad-spergō. a-spiciō, 3, -exī, -ectum [-spiciō]. at-tendō, 3, -dī, -tum. at-tineō, 2, -tinuī, -teutum [teneō].

INDEX OF VERBS

.9īn at-tingō, 3, -tigī, -tāctum [tangō]. at-tollō, 3, —, — [tollō]. audeō, audēre, ausus, 192 (ausim, 183. 3; sōdēs, 13. N.). audiō, 4, audīvī, audītum, 187 (contracted forms, 181. b). au-ferō, -ferre, abstulī, ablātum. augeō, 2, auxī, auctum. ausim, see audeō. avē (havē), avēte, avētō, 206. g. aveō, 2, —, —. balbūtiō, 4, —, —. bātuō, 3, -uī, —. bibō, 3, bibī, (pōtum). bulliō, 4, reg. (bullō, -āre) [ē-bulliō]. cadō, 3, cecĭdī, cāsum [ac-, con-, oc-cĭdō], 178. b. caecūtiō, 4, —, —. caedō, 3, cecīdī, caesum [ac-, oc-cīdō, etc.]. cale-faciō, like faciō, 266. a. cale-factō, 1, —, —, 266. a. caleō, 2, -uī, (calitūrus). calēscō, 3, -uī, —. calleō, 2, -uī, —. calveō, 2, —, —. candeō, 2, -uī, —. candēscō, 3, -canduī, —. cāneō, 2, -uī, —. cānēscō, 3, cānuī, —. canō, 3, cecinī, — [con-cinō]. cantillō, 1, reg., 263. 3. capessō, 3, capessīvī, —, 263. 2. b (incipissō, 3, —, —). capiō, 3, cēpī, captum [ac-cipiō etc.; also ante-capiō], 188. careō, 2, -uī, (-itūrus). carpō, 3, -psī, -ptum, 177. b [dē-cerpō]. caveō, 2, cāvī, cautum. cavillor, -ārī, -ātus, 263. 3. cedo (imperative), cedite (cette), 206. g. ???cēdō, 3, cessī, cessum. -cellō (only in comp., see per-cellō, ex-cellō, ante-cellō, -prae-cellō). -cendō, 3, -cendī, -cēnsum (only in comp., as in-cendō). cēnseō, 2, -uī, cēnsum. cernō, 3, crēvī, -crētum. cieō (-ciō), ciēre (-cīre), cīvī, cĭtum ???(-cītum) [ac-ciō, con-, ex-ciō]. cingō, 3, cīnxī, cīnctum. -ciō, see cieō. circum-dō, -dăre, -dedī, -dătum, 209. a. N. circum-sistō, 3, -stetī (-stitī), —. circum-spiciō, 3, -exī, -ectum. circum-stō, 1, -stitī (-stetī), —. clangō, 3, —, —. clārēscō, 3, clāruī, —. claudeō, 2, —, —, see claudō (limp).

.9īn claudō (limp), 3, —, —. claudō (close), 3, clausī, clausum [exclūdō]. clueō, 2, —, —. co-emō, 3, -ēmī, -ēmptum. coepī, -isse, coeptūrus, 205. co-erceō, 2, -uī, -itum [arceō]. cō-gnōscō, 3, -gnōvī, -gnĭtum [nōscō]. cōgō, 3, coēgī, ???coāctum, 15. 3 [agō]. col-līdō, 3, -līsī, līsum [laedō]. col-ligō, 3, -lēgī, -lēctum. col-lūceō, 2, —, — [lūceō]. colō, 3, coluī, cultum [ex-, ac-, in-]. combūrō, 3, -ussī, -ustum [ūrō]. com-edō, 3 (ēsse), -ēdī, -ēsum (-ēstum). com-minīscor, -ī, -mentus. cōmō, 3, cōmpsī, cōmptum. com-pellō, 3, -pulī, -pulsum. com-percō, 3, -persī, — [parcō]. comperiō, 4, -perī, compertum. comperior, -īrī, compertus, 191. N. com-pēscō, 3, -cuī, —. com-pingō, 3, -pēgī, -pāctum [pangō]. com-pleō, 2, -ēvī, -ētum. com-primō, 3, -pressī, -pressum [premō]. com-pungō, 3, -pūnxī, -pūnctum [pungō]. con-cidō, 3, -cĭdī, — [cadō]. con-cīdō, 3, -cīdī, -cīsum [caedō]. con-cinō, 3, -uī, — [canō]. con-cipiō, 3, -cēpī, -ceptum [capiō]. con-ciō (-cieō), 4 (2), -cīvī, -cĭtum (-cītum). con-clūdō, 3, -clūsī, -clūsum [claudō]. con-cupīscō, 3, -cupīvī, -cupītum. con-currō, 3, -currī (-cucurrī), -cursum. con-cutiō, 3, -cussī, -cussum [quatiō]. con-dō, 3, -didī, -ditum, 209. a. N. cō-nectō, 3, -nexuī, -nexum, 16. cōn-ferciō, 4, —, -fertum [farciō]. cōn-ferō, -ferre, -tulī, collātum. cōn-ficiō, 3, -fēcī, -fectum [faciō]. cōn-fit, defect., 204. c. cōn-fiteor, -ērī, -fessus [fateor]. cōn-fringō, 3, -frēgī, -frāctum [frangō]. con-gruō, 3, -uī, — [-gruō]. con-iciō, 3, -iēcī, -iectum, 6. d [iaciō]. cō-nītor, -ī, -nīsus (-nīxus), 16. cō-nīveō, 2, -nīvī (-nīxī), —, 16. con-quīrō, 3, -quīsīvī, -quīsītum [quaerō]. cōn-sistō, 3, -stitī, —. cōn-spergō, 3, -spersī, -spersum [spargō]. cōn-spiciō, 3, -spexī, -spectum, 174. cōn-stituō, 3, -uī, -stitūtum [statuō]. cōn-stō, 1, -stitī (-stātūrus) (cōnstat, 207). cōn-suē-faciō, like faciō, 266. a. cōn-suēscō, 3, -ēvī, -ētum (cōnsuērat, 181. a). cōn-sulō, 3, -uī, -sultum. cōn-tendō, 3, -tendī, -tentum. con-ticēscō, 3, -ticuī, —. con-tineō, 2, -tinuī, -tentum [teneō]. con-tingō, 3, -tigī, -tāctum [tangō] (contingit, impers., 208. c).

.9īn con-tundō, 3, -tudī, ???-tusum [tundō]. coquō, 3, coxī, coctum. cor-rigō, 3, -rēxī, -rēctum [regō]. cor-ripiō, 3, -ripuī, -reptum [rapiō]. cor-ruō, 3, -uī, — [ruō]. crēbrēscō, 3, -crēbruī, — [in-, per-]. crēdō, 3, -didī, -ditum, 209. a. N. [-dō]. crepō, 1, -uī (-crepāvī), -crepitum. crēscō, 3, crēvī, crētum, 176. b. 1. crōciō, 4, —, —. crūdēscō, 3, -crūduī, — [re-]. cubō, 1, -uī (cubāvī), -cubitum. cūdō, 3, -cūdī, -cūsum [in-cūdō]. -cumbō [CUB] (see ac-cumbō; compounds with dē-, ob-, pro-, re-, -and sub-, lack the p.p.). cupiō, 3, cupīvī, cupītum, 174. -cupīscō, 3, see con-cupīscō. currō, 3, cucurrī, cursum [in-currō]. dēbeō, 2, -uī, -itum, 15. 3. dē-cerpō, 3, -cerpsī, -cerptum [carpō]. decet (impers.), decēre, decuit, 208. c. dē-cipiō, 3, -cēpī, -ceptum [capiō]. dē-currō, 3, -currī (-cucurrī), -cursum. dē-dō, 3, -didī, -ditum [dō], 209. a. N. dē-fendō, 3, -dī, -fēnsum, 178. b. N.^1. dē-fetīscor, -ī, -fessus. dē-fit, defect., 204. c. dēgō, 3, —, — [agō]. dēlectat (impers.), 208. c. dēleō, 2, -ēvī, -ētum. dē-libuō, 3, -libuī, -libūtum. dē-ligō, 3, -lēgī, -lēctum [legō]. dēmō, 3, dēmpsī, dēmptum. dē-pellō, 3, -pulī, -pulsum. dē-primō, 3, -pressī, -pressum [premō]. depsō, 3, -suī, -stum. dē-scendō, 3, -dī, -scēnsum [scandō]. dē-siliō, 4, -siluī (-siliī), [-sultum] [saliō]. dē-sinō, 3, -siī (-sīvī), -situm [sinō]. dē-sipiō, 3, —, — [sapiō]. dē-sistō, 3, -stitī, -stitum [sistō]. dē-spiciō, 3, -spexī, -spectum. dē-spondeō, 2, -dī, -spōnsum [spondeō]. dē-struō, 3, -strūxī, -strūctum. dē-sum, -esse, -fuī, (-futūrus) [sum]. dē-tendō, 3, [-dī], -sum. dē-tineō, 3, -uī, -tentum [teneō]. dē-vertor, -ī, —. dīcō, 3, dīxī, dictum, p. 87, footnote 4 (dīxtī, 181. b. N.^2; dīc, 182). dif-ferō, -ferre, distulī, dīlātum [ferō]. dif-fiteor, -ērī, — [fateor]. dī-gnōscō, 3, -gnōvī, — [nōscō]. dī-ligō, 3, -lēxī, -lēctum [legō]. dī-luō, 3, -luī, -lūtum [luō]. dī-micō, 1, ???-āvī, -ātum. dī-nōscō, see dī-gnōscō. dir-ibeō, 2, —, -itum [habeō]. dir-imō, 3, -ēmī, -ēmptum [emō].

.9īn dī-ripiō, 3, -ripuī, -reptum [rapiō]. dī-ruō, 3, -ruī, -rutum [ruō]. discō [DIC], 3, didicī, —. [So compounds.] dis-crepō, 1, -uī or -āvī, —. dis-currō, 3, -currī (-cucurrī), -cursum. dis-iciō, 3, dis-iēcī, -iectum [iaciō]. dis-pandō, 3, —, -pānsum (-pessum) [pandō]. dis-sideō, 2, -sēdī, — [sedeō]. dis-siliō, 4, -uī, —. dis-tendō, 3, -dī, -tum. dī-stinguō, 3, -stīnxī, -stīnctum. dī-stō, 1, —, —. dītēscō, 3, —, —. dī-vidō, 3, -vīsī, -vīsum. dō [DA] (give), dăre, dedī, dătum, 174, 176. e, 202, 209. a. N. (duim, perduim, 183. 2). -dō [DHA] (put), 3, -didī, -ditum (only in comp., see -ab-dō, crēdō, vēndō), 209. a. N. doceō, 2, -uī, doctum. doleō, 2, -uī, (-itūrus). -dolēscō, 3, -doluī, — [con-]. domō, 1, -uī, -itum. -dormīscō, 3, -dormīvī, — [con-]. dūcō, 3, dūxī, ductum (dūc, 182). dūlcēscō, 3, —, —. durēscō, 3, dūruī, —. ē-bulliō, 4, ēbulliī, —. edō (eat), 3, edere (ēsse), ēdī, ēsum, 201. ē-dō (put forth), 3, -didī, -ditum, 209. a. N. ef-ferō, -ferre, extulī, ēlātum. ef-ficiō, 3, -fēcī, -fectum [faciō]. egeō, 2, -uī, —. ē-iciō, 3, -iēcī, -iectum [iaciō]. ē-liciō, 3, -uī, -citum. ē-ligō, 3, -lēgī, -lēctum [legō]. ē-micō, 1, -micuī, -micātum. ē-mineō, 2, -uī, — [-mineō]. emō, 3, ēmī, ēmptum, 15. 11 [ad-, dir-imō, co-emō]. ē-necō, 1, -uī (-āvī), -nectum (-ātum) [necō]. ēns, see sum. eō, īre, iī (īvī), ĭtum, 203 (itum est, 203. a; īrī, id.; ītur, impers., 208. d; ad-eō, adeor, in-eō, 203. a; ambiō, 203. d; prōdeō, -īre, -iī, -ĭtum, 203. e). See vēneō. ē-rigō, 3, -rēxī, -rēctum. escit, escunt (see sum), 170. b. N. ēsuriō, 4, —, ēsurītūrus, 263. 4. ē-vādō, 3, -vāsī, -vāsum (ēvāstī, 181. b. N.^2). ē-vanēscō, 3, ēvanuī, —. ē-venit (impers.), 207, 208. c. ē-vīlēscō, 3, -vīluī, —. ex-cellō, 3, -celluī, -celsum. ex-ciō (-cieō), 4 (2), -īvī (-iī), -ĭtum (-ĭtum) ex-cipiō, 3, -cēpī, -ceptum [capiō]. ex-clūdō, 3, -clūsī, -clūsum [claudō]. ex-colō, 3, -uī, -cultum [colō]. ex-currō, 3, -currī (-cucurrī), -cursum.

.9īn ex-erceō, 2, -cuī, -citum [arceō]. ex-imō, 3, -ēmī, -ēmptum [emō]. ex-olēscō, 3, -olēvī, -olētum. ex-pellō, 3, -pulī, -pulsum. ex-pergīscor, 3, -perrēctus. ex-perior, 4, -pertus. ex-pleō, 2, -ēvī, -ētum. ex-plicō, 1, (unfold), -uī, -itum; (explain), -āvī, -ātum. ex-plōdō, 3, -sī, -sum [plaudō]. ex-pungō, 3, -pūnxī, -pūnctum. ex-(s)iliō, 3, -uī (-iī), — [saliō]. ex-sistō, 3, -stitī, -stitum. ex-stinguō, 3, -stīnxī, -stīnctum. ex-stō, 1, —, (-stātūrus). ex-tendō, 3, -dī, -tum (-sum). exuō, 3, -uī, -ūtum. facessō, 3, facessīvī (facessī), facessītum, 263. 2. b. faciō, 3, fēcī, factum, 204 (fac, 182; faxō, -im, 183. 3; cōn-ficiō and other comps. in -ficiō, 204. a; bene-faciō etc., 204. b; con-suē-faciō, cale-faciō, cale-factō, 266. a). -factō, 1 (in compounds), 266. a. fallō, 3, fefellī, falsum, 177. c, 178. b. N.^4. farciō, 4, farsī, fartum [re-ferciō]. fateor, -ērī, fassus [cōn-fiteor]. fatīscō, 3, —, —. faveō, 2, fāvī, fautum. -fendō, 3, -fendī, -fēnsum, see dēfendō. feriō, 4, —, —. ferō, ferre, tulī, lātum, 176. d. N.^1, 200 (fer, 182) [af-, au-, cōn-, dif-, ef-, īn-, of-, re-, suf-ferō]. ferveō, 2, fervī (ferbuī), —; also, fervō, 3. fervēscō, 3, -fervī (-ferbuī), —. fīdō, fīdere, fīsus, 192 [cōn-fīdō]. fīgō, 3, fīxī, fīxum. findō [FID], 3, fidī, fissum, 176. c. 2, 177. c. N. fingō [FIG], 3, fīnxī, fictum, 177. b. N. fīō, fierī, factus, 204 (see faciō) (fit, impers., 208. c; cōnfit, dēfit, īnfit, effierī, interfierī, interfīat, superfit, 204. c). flectō, 3, flexī, flexum. fleō, 2, -ēvī, -ētum, 176. e (flēstis, 181. a). -flīgō, only in comp., see af-flīgō. flōreō, 2, -uī, —. flōrēscō, 3, flōruī, —. fluō, 3, flūxī, fluxum, 261. N. fodiō, 3, fōdī, fossum. [for], fārī, fātus, 179. a, 206. c (af-fārī, prōfātus, prae-, inter-fātur, etc., 206. c). fore, forem, etc., see sum. foveō, 2, fōvī, fōtum. frangō [FRAG], 3, frēgī, frāctum, 176. b. 1 [per-fringō]. fremō, 3, fremuī, —. frendō, 3, —, frēsum (fressum).

.9īn fricō, 1, -uī, frictum (fricātum). frīgeō, 2, —, —. frīgēscō, 3, -frīxī, — [per-, re-]. frīgō, 3, frīxī, frīctum. frondeō, 2, —, —. fruor, -ī, frūctus. fuam, -ās, etc. (see sum), 170. b. N. fugiō, 3, fūgī, (fugitūrus). fulciō, 4, fulsī, fultum. fulgeō, 2, -sī, —. fulgō, 3, —, —. fulgurat (impers.), 208. a. fundō [FUD], 3, fūdī, fūsum, 176. b. 1. fungor, -ī, fūnctus. furō, 3, —, —. fūvimus, fūvisset (see sum), 170. b. N. ganniō, 4, —, —. gaudeō, gaudēre, gāvīsus, 192. -gemīscō, 3, -gemuī, —. gemō, 3, gemuī, —. gerō, 3, gessī, gestum. gestiō, 4, -īvī, —, 262. a. gignō [GEN], 3, genuī, genitum, 176. c 1 glīscō, 3, —, —. glūbō, 3, —, —. gradior, -ī, gressus [ag-gredior]. grandinat (impers.), 208. a. -gruō, 3, see con-, in-gruō. habeō, 2, -uī, -itum [in-hibeō; dēbeō dir-ibeō]. haereō, 2, haesī, haesum. haerēscō, 3, —, —. hauriō, 4, hausī, haustum (hausūrus). havē, see avē. hebeō, 2, —, —. hebēscō, 3, —, —. hinniō, 4, —, —. hirriō, 4, —, —. hīscō, 3, —, — [de-hīscō]. horreō, 2, horruī, —. horrēscō, 3, -horruī, —. īcō, 3, īcī, ictum. īgnōscō, 3, -nōvī, -nōtum [nōscō]. il-liciō, 3, -lexī, -lectum [-liciō]. il-līdō, 3, -līsī, -līsum [laedō]. imbuō, 3, -uī, -ūtum. im-mineō, 2, —, — [-mineō]. im-pellō, 3, -pulī, -pulsum [pellō]. im-petrō, 1, reg. (-āssere, 183. 5). im-pingō, 3, -pēgī, -pāctum [pangō]. im-pleō, 2, -ēvī, -ētum. im-plicō, 1, -āvī (-uī), -ātum (-itum) in-cendō, 3, -dī, -sum. in-cessō, 3, incessīvī, —. in-cidō, 3, -cĭdī, (-cāsūrus) [cadō]. in-cīdō, 3, -cīdī, -cīsum [caedō]. in-cipiō, 3, -cēpī, -ceptum [capiō].

.9īn in-clūdō, 3, -sī, -sum [claudō]. in-colō, 3, -coluī, — [colō]. in-crepō, 1, -uī (-āvī), -itum. in-currō, 3, -currī (-cucurrī), -cursum. in-cutiō, 3, -cussī, -cussum. ind-igeō, 2, -uī, — [egeō]. ind-ipīscor, 3, -eptus [apīscor]. in-dō, 3, -didī, -ditum, 209. a. N. indulgeō, 2, indulsī, indultum. induō, 3, -uī, -ūtum. ineptiō, 4, —, —. īn-ferō, -ferre, -tulī, illātum. īn-fit, see fīō. in-gredior, 3, -gressus [gradior]. in-gruō, 3, -uī, — [-gruō]. in-hibeō, 2, -uī, -itum [habeō]. in-olēscō, 3, -olēvī, —. inquam, defect., 206. b. in-quīrō, 3, -quīsīvī, -quīsītum [quaerō]. īn-sideō, 2, -sēdī, -sessum [sedeō]. īn-sīdō, 3, -sēdī, -sessum. īn-siliō, 3, -uī, [-sultum] [saliō]. īn-sistō, 3, -stitī, —. īn-spiciō, 3, -spexī, -spectum. īn-stituō, 3, -uī, -ūtum [statuō]. īn-stō, 1, -stitī, (-stātūrus). intel-legō, 3, -lēxī, -lēctum. inter-dō, -dăre, -dedī, -datum, 209. a. N. inter-est, -esse, -fuit (impers.), 208. b. inter-fātur, see for. inter-ficiō, 3, -fēcī, -fectum [faciō]. inter-stō, 1, -stetī, —, 209. a. N. in-tueor, -ērī, -tuitus [tueor]. īrāscor, -ī, īrātus. ir-ruō, 3, -ruī, — [ruō]. iaceō, 2, -uī, —. iaciō, 3, iēcī, iactum [ab-iciō, etc.; disiciō, porr-iciō]. iubeō, 2, iussī, iussum (iussō, 183. 3). iūdicō, 1, reg. (-āssit, 183. 5). iungō, 3, iūnxī, iūnctum. iuvenēscō, 3, —, —. iuvō (ad-), 1, iūvī, iūtum (-ātūrus). labāscō, 3, —, —. lābor, -ī, lāpsus. lacessō, 3, lacessīvī, lacessītum, 263. b. laedō, 3, laesī, laesum [il-līdō]. lambō, 3, —, —. langueō, 2, languī, —. languēscō, 3, languī, —. lateō, 2, -uī, —. latēscō, 3, -lituī, — [dē-litēscō]. lavō, 3, lāvī, lautum (lōtum) (also reg. of 1st conj.). legō, 3, lēgī, lēctum [for compounds see 211. e, footnote, also dē-ligō, dī-ligō, intel-legō, neglegō]. levō, 1, reg. (-āssō, 183. 5). libet (lubet), -ēre, -uit, 208. c (libitum est; libēns).

.9īn liceō, 2, licuī, —. licet, -ēre, licuit, (-itūrum), 207, 208. c (licitum est, licēns). -liciō, 3 [for laciō, only in comp.; see alliciō, ē-liciō, -pel-liciō]. linō [LI], 3, lēvī (līvī), litum. linquō [LIC], 3, -līquī, -lictum. liqueō, 2, līquī (licuī), —. liquēscō, 3, -licuī, —. līquor, -ī, —. līveō, 2, —, —. loquor, -ī, locūtus, 261. N. lūceō, 2, lūxī, —. lūcēscō (-cīscō), 3, -lūxī, — [il-]. lūdō, 3, lūsī, lūsum. lūgeō, 2, lūxī, —. luō, 3, luī, -lūtum [dē-luō, solvō]. madeō, 2, maduī, —. madēscō, 3, maduī, —. maereō, 2, —, —. mālō, mālle, māluī, —, 199 (māvolō, māvelim, māvellem, id. N.). mandō, 3, mandī, mānsum. maneō, 2, mānsī, mānsum [per-maneō]. mānsuēscō, see -suēscō. marcēscō, 3, -marcuī, — [ē-]. mātūrēscō, 3, mātūruī, —. medeor, -ērī, —. meminī, defect., 205. mereō or mereor, merēre or -ērī, meritus, 190. g. mergō, 3, mersī, mersum. mētior, -īrī, mēnsus. metō, 3, messuī, -messum. metuō, 3, -uī, -ūtum. micō, 1, micuī, —. -mineō, 2, -uī, — [ē-, im-, prō-mineō]. -minīscor, -ī, -mentus [com-, re-]. minuō, 3, -uī, -ūtum. mīror, mīrārī, mīrātus. misceō, 2, -cuī, mixtum (mistum). misereor, -ērī, miseritus (misertus), 208. b. N. miseret, impers., 208. b. mītēscō, 3, —, —. mittō, 3, mīsī, missum, 176. d. N.^2. mōlior, -īrī, -ītus. molō, 3, moluī, molitum. moneō, 2, -uī, -itum, 185. mordeō, 2, momordī, morsum. morior, -ī (-īrī), mortuus (moritūrus). moveō, 2, mōvī, mōtum (commōrat, 181. a). mulceō, 2, mulsī, mulsum. mulgeō, 2, -sī, mulsum. muttiō, 4, -īvī, —. nancīscor, -ī, nactus (nānctus). nāscor, -ī, nātus. necō, 1, -āvī (-uī), -ātum, 209, footnote 2 [ē-necō].

.9īn nectō [NEC], 3, nexī (nexuī), nexum. neglegō, 3, neglēxī, -lēctum, 211. e, footnote 2. neō, 2, nēvī, —. nequeō, defect., 206. d. nigrēscō, 3, nigruī, —. ningit, 3, nīnxit (impers.), 208. a. niteō, 2, —, —. nitēscō, 3, nituī, —. nītor, -ī, nīsus (nīxus). -nīveō, 2, -nīvī (-nīxī), —. nō, 1, nāvī, —, 179. a. noceō, 2, nocuī, —. nōlō, nōlle, nōluī, —, 199 (nevīs, nevolt, id. N.). nōscō [GNO], 3, nōvī, nōtum [āg-, cōg-, dī(g)-, īg-nōscō], 205. b. N.^2 (nōsse, 181. a). nōtēscō, 3, -uī, —. nūbō, 3, nūpsī, nūptum. -nuō, 3, -nuī, — [ab-, ad-nuō]. ob-dō, 3, -didī, -ditum, 209. a. N. ob-līvīscor, -ī, oblītus. ob-mūtēscō, 3, -mūtuī, —. ob-sideō, 2, -sēdī, -sessum [sideō]. ob-sīdō, 3, —, —. ob-sistō, 3, -stitī, -stitum. ob-solēscō, 3, -ēvī, -ētum. ob-stō, 1, -stitī, (-stātūrus). ob-tineō, 2, -uī, -tentum [teneō]. ob-tingit (impers.), 208. c. ob-tundō, 3, -tudī, -tūsum (-tūnsum). ob-venit (impers.), 208. c. oc-callēscō, 3, -calluī, —. oc-cidō, 3, -cĭdī, - cāsum [cadō]. oc-cīdō, 3, -cīdī, -cīsum [caedō]. oc-cinō, 3, -cinuī, — [canō]. oc-cipiō, 3, -cēpī, -ceptum. occulō, 3, occuluī, occultum. oc-currō, 3, -currī (-cucurrī), -cursum. ōdī, ōdisse, ōsūrus (perōsus), 205. of-ferō, -ferre, obtulī, oblātum. -oleō (grow) [see ab-, ad-]. oleō (smell), 2, oluī, —. operiō, 4, operuī, opertum. oportet, -ēre, -uit (impers.), 208. c. op-pangō, 3, -pēgī, -pāctum [pangō]. opperior, -īrī, oppertus. op-primō, 3, -pressī, -pressum [premō]. ōrdior, -īrī, ōrsus. orior (3d), -īrī, ortus (oritūrus) (so comps.), 174, 191. os-tendō, 3, -tendī, -tentum. ovāre, ovātus, defect., 206. f. pacīscor, -ī, pactus. paenitet (impers.), -ēre, -uit, 208. b (-tūrus, -tendus, id. N.). palleō, 2, palluī, —. pallēscō, 3, palluī, —. pandō, 3, pandī, pānsum (passum) [dis-].

.9īn pangō [PAG], 3, pepigī (-pēgī), pāctum [im-pingō; op-pangō]. parcō, 3, pepercī (parsī), (parsūrus). pāreō, 2, -uī, pāritum (late). pariō, 3, peperī, partum (paritūrus) [com-, re-periō]. partior, -īrī, -ītus, 190. parturiō, 4, —, —. pāscō, 3, pāvī, pāstum. pateō, 2, patuī, —. patior, -ī, passus [per-petior]. paveō, 2, pāvī, —. pavēscō, 3, -pāvī, — [ex-]. pectō, 3, pexī, pexum. pel-liciō, 3, -lexī, -lectum [-liciō]. pellō, 3, pepulī, pulsum, 176. d. N.^2, 178 b. N.^4 [ap-pellō, com-pellō, etc.]. pendeō, 2, pependī, -pēnsum. pendō, 3, pependī, pēnsum. per-agō, 3, -ēgī, -āctum. per-cellō, 3, -culī, -culsum. per-ciō, see ciō; p.p. -cĭtus. per-currō, 3, -currī (-cucurrī), -cursum. per-dō, 3, -didī, -ditum, 209. a. N. per-ficiō, 3, -fēcī, -fectum [faciō]. per-fringō, 3, -frēgī, -frāctum [frangō] pergō, 3, perrēxī, perrēctum. per-legō, 3, -lēgī, -lēctum [legō]. per-ōsus, see ōdī. per-petior, -ī, -pessus. per-quīrō, 3, -quīsīvī, -quīsītum [quaerō]. per-spiciō, 3, -spexī, -spectum. per-stō, 1, -stitī, —. per-tineō, 2, -uī, — [teneō]. per-tundō, 3, -tudī, -tūsum. pessum-dō, like dō, 209. a. N., 428. i. petessō (petissō), 3, —, —, 263. 2. b. petō, 3, petīvī (-iī), petītum, 177. f. piget (impers.), -ēre, piguit, 208. b (pigitum est, id. N.). pingō [PIG], 3, pīnxī, pictum. pīnsō, 3, -sī, pīns- (pīnstum, pīstum). pīsō, 3, pīsīvī (-iī), pīstum (see pīnsō). placeō, 2, -uī, -itum (placet, impers., 208. c.). plangō, 3, plānxī, plānctum. plaudō, 3, plausī, plausum [ex-plōdō, etc.; ap-plaudō]. plectō, 3, plexī, plexum, 174, 176. b. 1. -plector, -ī, -plexus. -pleō, 2, -plēvī, -plētum (only in comps., as com-pleō). plicō, 1, -plicuī (-plicāvī), -plicitum (-plicātum). pluit, 3, pluit (plūvit), 174, 208. a (pluunt id. N.). polleō, 2, —, —. polluō, 3, -uī, -ūtum [luō]. pōnō, 3, posuī, positum. porr-iciō, 3, —, -rectum [iaciō]. por-rigō (porgō), 3, -rēxī, -rēctum.

.9īn pōscō, 3, popōscī, — (so comps.). possideō, 2, -sēdī, -sessum [sedeō]. possīdō, 3, -sēdī, -sessum. possum, posse, potuī, —, 198. b (potis sum, pote sum, possiem, poterint, potisit, potestur, possitur, id., footnote). potior, -īrī, potītus. pōtō, 1, -āvī, -ātum (pōtum). praebeō, 2, -uī, -itum [habeō]. prae-cellō, 3, —, — [-cellō]. prae-cinō, 3, -cinuī, — [canō]. prae-currō, 3, -currī (-cucurrī), -cursum. prae-fātur, 206. c. prae-legō, 3, -lēgī, -lēctum [legō]. prae-sāgiō, 4, -īvī, —. prae-sēns, 170. b (see sum). prae-sideō, 2, -sēdī, — [sedeō]. prae-stō, 1, -stitī, -stitum (-stātum) (praestat, impers., 208. c). prae-sum, -esse, -fuī, (-futūrus). prandeō, 2, prandī, prānsum. prehendō (prēndō), 3, -dī, prehēnsum (prēnsum). premō, 3, pressī, pressum [re-primō]. prēndō, see prehendō. prō-currō, 3, -currī (-cucurrī), -cursum. prōd-eō, 4, -iī, -itum, 203. e. prōd-igō, 3, -ēgī, -āctum [agō]. prō-dō, 3, -didī, -ditum, 209. a. N. prō-fātus, 206. c. prō-ficiō, 3, -fēcī, -fectum. pro-ficīscor, -ī, profectus. prō-fiteor, -ērī, -fessus. prō-mineō, -ēre, -uī, —. prōmō, 3, -mpsī, -mptum, 15. 3. prō-siliō, 3, -uī (-īvī), — [saliō]. prō-sum, prōdesse, prōfuī (-futūrus), 198. a. prō-tendō, 3, -dī, -tentus (-sus). psallō, 3, -ī, —. pūbēscō, 3, pūbuī, —. pudet (impers.), pudēre, puduit or puditum est, 208. b (pudendus, id. N.). puerāscō, 3, —, —. pungō [PUG], 3, pupugī, pūnctum [com-]. pūtēscō, 3, pūtuī, —. quaerō, 3, quaesīvī, quaesītum [re-quīrō] (cf. quaesō). quaesō, 3, defect., 206. e (cf. quaerō). quassō, 1, reg., 263. 2. quatiō, 3, -cussī, quassum [con-cutiō]. queō, quīre, quīvī, quitus, 206. d (quītur, etc., id. N.); cf. nequeō. queror, -ī, questus. quiēscō, 3, quiēvī, quiētum. rabō (rabiō), 3, —, —. rādō, 3, rāsī, rāsum. rapiō, 3, rapuī, raptum (ērēpsēmus, 181. b. N.^2 [ab-ripiō etc.].

.9īn re-cidō, 3, reccĭdī, (recāsūrus) [cadō]. re-cīdō, 3, -cīdī, -cīsum [caedō]. re-cipiō, 3, -cēpī, -ceptum [capiō] (recēpsō 183. 3). re-clūdō, 3, -sī, -sum. red-dō, 3, reddidī, redditum, 209. a. N. red-igō, 3, -ēgī, -āctum [agō]. red-imō, 3, -ēmī, -ēmptum. re-fellō, 3, -fellī, — [fallō]. re-ferciō, 4, -fersī, -fertum [farciō]. re-ferō, -ferre, rettulī, relātum [ferō]. rē-fert, -ferre, -tulit (impers.), 208. c. re-ficiō, 3, -fēcī, -fectum. regō, 3, rēxī, rēctum [ar-rigō etc.; pergō, surgō]. re-linquō, 3, -līquī, -lictum [linquō]. re-minīscor, -ī, —. renīdeō, 2, —, —. reor, rērī, ratus. re-pellō, 3, reppulī (repulī), repulsum. reperiō, 4, repperī, repertum. rēpō, 3, rēpsī, —. re-primō, 3, -pressī, -pressum [premō]. re-quīrō, 3, -sīvī, -sītum [quaerō]. re-sideō, 2, -sēdī, —. re-siliō, 4, -uī (-iī), —. re-sipīscō, 3, -sipīvī, — [sapiō]. re-sistō, 3, -stitī, —. re-spergō, 3, -sī, -sum [spargō]. re-spondeō, 2, -dī, -spōnsum [spondeō]. re-stat (impers.), 208. c. re-stō, 1, -stitī, —, 209. a. N. re-tendō, 3, -dī, -tum (-sum). re-tineō, 2, -tinuī, -tentum [teneō]. re-tundō, 3, rettudī, retūnsum (-tūsum). re-vertor, -ī, reversus, 191 (revertī, -eram, id. N.). rīdeō, 2, rīsī, -rīsum. rigeō, 2, riguī, —. rigēscō, 3, riguī, —. ringor, 3, rictus. rōdō, 3, rōsī, rōsum. rubeō, 2, —, —. rubēscō, 3, rubuī, —. rudō, 3, rudīvī, —. rumpō [RUP], 3, rūpī, ruptum. ruō, 3, ruī, rutum (ruitūrus), 176. e [dīcor-]. saepiō, 4, saepsī, saeptum. sāgiō, 4, see prae-sāgiō. saliō, 4, saluī (saliī), [saltum] [dē-siliō]. salvē, salvēre, 206. g. sanciō [SAC], 4, sānxī, sānctum, 177. b. N. sānēscō, 3, -sānuī, — [con-]. sapiō, 3, sapiī, —. sarciō, 4, sarsī, sartum. satis-dō, -dăre, -dedī, -dătum, 209. a. N. scabō, 3, scābī, —. scalpō, 3, scalpsī, scalptum. scandō, 3, -scendī, -scēnsum [a-scendō, etc.]

.9īn scateō (scatō), -ēre or -ĕre, —, —. scatūriō, 4, —, —. scīn ( s̄́cīsne), 13. N. (see sciō). scindō [SCID], 3, scidī, scissum, 177. c. N. sciō, 4, -īvī, scītum (scīn, 13. N.). ścīscō, 3, scīvī, scītum. scrībō, 3, scrīpsī, scrīptum, 178. b. N.^1. sculpō, 3, sculpsī, sculptum. sē-cernō, 3, -crēvī, -crētum. secō, 1, -uī, sectum (also secātūrus). sedeō, 2, sēdī, sessum [ad-, pos-sideō, etc.; super-sedeō]. sē-ligō, 3, -lēgī, -lēctum [legō]. senēscō, 3, senuī, —. sentiō, 4, sēnsī, sēnsum. sepeliō, 4, sepelīvī, sepultum. sequor, -ī, secūtus, 190. serō (entwine), 3, seruī, sertum. serō (sow), 3, sēvī, satum. serpō, 3, serpsī, —. sīdō, 3, sīdī (-sēdī), -sessum. sileō, 2, -uī, —. singultiō, 4, -īvī, —. sinō, 3, sīvī, situm (sīris, etc., 181. b. N.^1). sistō [STA], 3, stitī, statum. sitiō, 4, -īvī, —. sōdēs ( s̄ī audēs), 13. N. soleō, solēre, solitus, 192. solvō, 3, solvī, solūtum, 177. e, 261. N. sonō, 1, -uī, -itum (-ātūrus). sorbeō, 2, sorbuī (rarely sorpsī), —. spargō, 3, sparsī, sparsum [ad-spergō]. spernō, 3, sprēvī, sprētum, 177. a. N. -spiciō, 3, -spexī, -spectum. splendeō, 2, -uī, —. spondeō, 2, spopondī, spōnsum [re-]. spuō, 3, -spuī, —. squāleō, 2, —, —. statuō, 3, -uī, -ūtum, 176. d [con-stituō]. sternō, 3, strāvī, strātum, 177. a. N. sternuō, 3, sternuī, —. stertō, 3, -stertuī, —. -stinguō, 3, -stīnxī, -stīnctum (in comp., as ex-). stō, stāre, stetī, -statum (-stit-), 209. a, and N. strepō, 3, strepuī, —. strīdeō, 2, strīdī, —. strīdō, 3, strīdī, —. stringō, 3, strīnxī, strictum. struō, 3, strūxī, strūctum. studeō, 2, -uī, —. stupeō, 2, stupuī, —. stupēscō, 3, -stupuī, —. suādeō, 2, suāsī, suāsum. sub-dō, 3, -didī, -ditum, 209. a. N. sub-igō, 3, -ēgī, -āctum [agō]. suc-cidō, 3, -cĭdī, — [cadō]. suc-cīdō, 3, -cīdī, -cīsum [caedō]. suc-currō, 3, -currī, -cursum. suēscō, 3, suēvī, suētum.

.9īn suf-ferō, sufferre, ???sustulī, sublātum. suf-ficiō, 3, -fēcī, -fectus [faciō]. suf-fodiō, 3, -fōdī, -fossum. sug-gerō, 3, -gessī, -gestum. sūgō, 3, sūxī, sūctum. sūltis ( s̄ī vultis), 13. N. sum, esse, fuī, (futūrus), 170; fuī (forem, fore, 170. a; sōns, -sēns, ēns, id. b; fūvimus, fūvisset, siem, fuam, fuās, escit, escunt, id. b. N.; homōst, etc., 13. N.). sūmō, 3, sūmpsī, sūmptum, 15. 11. suō, 3, suī, sūtum. super-dō, -dăre, -dedī, -dătum, 209. a. N. super-fit, defect., 204. c. super-fluō, 3, —, — [fluō]. super-stō, 1, -stetī, —. super-sum, see sum (superest, impers., 208. c). surdēscō, 3, surduī, —. surgō (sur-rigō), 3, surrēxī, surrēctum. sur-ripiō, 3, -uī (surpuī), -reptum [rapiō]. tābeō, 2, -uī, —. tābēscō, 3, tābuī, —. taedet (impers.), -ēre, taeduit, pertaesum est, 208. b. tangō [TAG], 3, tetigī, tāctum, 176. c. 2 [con-tingō]. tegō, 3, tēxī, tēctum, 186. temnō, 3, -tempsī, -temptum, 176. b. 1. tendō [TEN], 3, tetendī, tentum. teneō, 2, tenuī, -tentum [con-tineō, etc.]. tepēscō, 3, tepuī, —. tergeō, 2, tersī, tersum. tergō, 3, tersī, tersum. terō, 3, trīvī, trītum. texō, 3, texuī, textum. timeō, 2, -uī, —. -timēscō, 3, -timuī, —. tingō (tinguō), 3, tīnxī, tīnctum, 178. b. N.^2. tollō, 3, sustulī, sublātum, 211. f. N. [at-tollō]. tondeō, 2, -totondī (-tondī), tōnsum, 177. c. tonō, 1, -uī, -tonitum (-tonātum). torpeō, 2, —, —. torqueō, 2, torsī, tortum. torreō, 2, torruī, tostum. trā-dō, 3, -didī, -ditum, 209. a. N. trahō, 3, trāxī, trāctum (trāxe, 181. b. N.^2). trāns-currō, 3, -currī (-cucurrī), -cursum. tremō, 3, tremuī, —. tribuō, 3, tribuī, tribūtum. trūdō, 3, trūsī, trūsum. tueor, -ērī, tuitus (tūtus, adj.). tumeō, 2, —, —. tumēscō, 3, -tumuī, — [in-]. tundō [TUD], 3, tutudī, tūnsum (-tūsum) [ob-tundō]. turgeō, 2, tursī, —. tussiō, 4, —, —.

.9īn ulcīscor, -ī, ultus. ungō, (-uō), 3, ūnxī, ūnctum. urgeō, 2, ursī, —. ūrō, 3, ussī, ustum (so comps., cf. also combūrō). ūtor, -ī, ūsus. vacat (impers.), 208. c. vādō, 3, -vāsī, -vāsum. vāgiō, 4, -iī, —. valeō, 2, -uī, (-itūrus). valēscō, 3, -uī, —. vānēscō, 3, -vānuī, — [ē-]. vehō, 3, vēxī, vectum. vellō (vollō), 3, vellī (-vulsī), vulsum. vēndō, 3, -didī, -ditum, 428. i. vēndō (be sold), 4, -iī, - itum, 428. i. veniō (come), 4, vēnī, ventum, 19, 174. vēnum-dō, -dăre, -dedī, -dătum, 209. a. N., 428. i. vereor, -ērī, -itus, 190. vergō, 3, —, —. verrō (vorrō), 3, -verrī, versum.

.9īn vertō (vortō), 3, vertī, versum, 178. b. N.^1 (vertor, mid., 156. a. N.). vescor, -ī, —. vesperāscit (impers.), 208. a, 263. 1. veterāscō, 3, veterāvī, —. vetō, 1, -uī, -itum. videō, 2, vīdī, vīsum. videor (seem), -ērī, vīsus (vidētur, impers., 208. c). vieō, 2, [viēvī], -ētum. vigeō, 2, -uī, —. vīn ( v̄́īsne, see volō). vinciō, 4, vīnxī, vīnctum. vincō [VIC], 3, vīcī, victum. vireō, 2, -uī, —. vīsō [VID], 3, vīsī, —, 263. 4. N. vīvīscō, 3, -vīxī, —, [re-]. vīvō, 3, vīxī, vīctum (vīxet, 181. b. N.^2). volō, velle, voluī, 199 (sūltis, 13. N., 199. N.; vīn, 13. N.). v́olvō, 3, volvī, volūtum. vomō, 3, vomuī, —. voveō, 2, vōvī, vōtum.

.5in INDEX OF WORDS AND SUBJECTS

INDEX OF WORDS AND SUBJECTS

NOTE.—The numerical references are to sections, with a few exceptions in which the page (p.) is referred to. The letters and some numerals refer to subsections. The letter N. signifies Note; ftn., footnote. Abl. = ablative; acc. = accusative; adj. = adjective; adv. = adverb or adverbial; apod. = apodosis; app. = appositive or apposition; cf. = compare; comp. = compound or composition; compar. = comparative or comparison; conj. = conjugation or conjunction; constr. = construction; dat. = dative; gen. = genitive; gend. = gender; imv. = imperative; ind. disc. = indirect discourse; loc. = locative; nom. = nominative; prep. = preposition; subj. = subject; subjv. = subjunctive; vb. = verb; w. = with. (Other abbreviations present no difficulty.)
=7pt =1 = =7pt =1

.9īn A, quantity of final, 604. d. ă, acc. of Greek nouns in, 81. 2; as nom. ending, decl. III, gend., 84–87. ā, in decl. I, 37; stem-vowel of conj. I, 171, 174, 179. a, 259; in subjunctive, 179; preps. in -ā, adv. use of, 433. 4. ā-, primary suffix, 234. I. 1. ā (ab, abs), use, 220. b, 221. 1, 429. b; compounded with vbs., 267. a; w. abl. of agent, 405; w. place from which, 426. 1; w. names of towns, 428. a; expressing position, 429. b; as adv. expressing distance, w. abl. of degree of difference, 433. 3; in comps., w. dat., 381; in comps., w. abl., 402; w. abl. of gerund, 507. ā parte, 398, 429. b. ab and au in auferō, 200. a. N. Abbreviations of prænomens, 108. c. Ability, verbs of, constr., 456; in apod., 517. c. ABLATIVE, defined, 35. e; in -ābus, 43. e; in -d, 43. N.^1, 49. e, 80. ftn., 92. f; of i-stems, decl. III, 74. e; rules of form, 76; nouns having abl. in -ī, 76. a, b; of decl. IV, in -ubus, 92. c; abl. used as supine, 94. b; of adjs., decl. III, 121. a. 1–4; preps. followed by, 220. b; adverbial forms of, 214. e, cf. 215. 4. ABLATIVE, Syntax, 398–420; classification and meaning, 398, 399. Separation, 400; w. vbs. of freedom, 401; w. comps., 402; w. adjs. of freedom etc., 402. a. Source and material, 403; w. participles, id. a; w. cōnstāre etc., id. b; w. facere, id. c; w. nouns, id. d. Cause, 404; causā, grātiā, id. c. Agent, 405; means for agent, 405. b. N.^1. Comparison, 406; opīniōne, spē, etc., id. a;

.9īn w. alius, 407. d; w. advs., id. e. Means, 409; w. dōnō etc., 364; w. ūtor, fruor, etc., 410; w. opus and ūsus, 411. Manner, 412. Accompaniment, 413. Degree of difference, 414; quō . . . eō, 414. a. Quality, 415; price, 416; charge or penalty, 353. 1. Specification, 418; w. dīgnus etc., id. b. Abl. Absolute, 419; adverbial use, id. c; replacing subord clauses, 420; supplying place of perf. act. part., 493. 2. Place, 422, 426. 3; w. vbs. and frētus, 431 and a. Abl. of time, 423; of time w. quam, 434. N.; of place from which, 426. 1; names of towns, domus, rūs, 427. 1; ex urbe Rōmā, 428. b. Locative abl., 426. 3; way by which, 429. a; w. transitive compounds, 395. N.^1; time within which, 424. c; duration of time, id. b. Abl. w. preps., 220. b, 221, 430, 435; w. ex for part. gen., 346. c; w. prō (in defence of), 379. N.; w. palam etc., 432. c; abl. of gerund, 507; equiv. to pres. part., id. ftn. Ablaut, 17; in decl. II, 45. c. Abounding, words of, w. abl., 409. a; w. gen., 356. Absence, vbs. of, w. abl., 401. Absolute case, see Abl. Absolute. Absolute use of vb., 273. 2. N.^2, 387. N. absque mē etc., in Pl. and Ter., 517. f. Abstract nouns, gend., 32; in plur., 100. c; endings, 238; w. neut. adj., 287. 4. a, 289; abstract quality denoted by neut. adj., 289. a. absum, constr., 373. b. -ābus, in dat. and abl. plur., decl. I, 43. e. ac, see atque. ac sī, w. subjv., 524. Acatalectic verse, 612. a.

INDEX OF WORDS AND SUBJECTS

.9īn accēdit ut, 569. 2. Accent, rules of, 12; effect in modifying vowels, p. 27. ftn. 1; in decl. II, 49. b; in comps. of faciō, 204. b; musical, 611. acceptum, 496. N.^4. accidit, synopsis, 207; constr., 569. 2. accingō, constr., 364. accommodātus, w. dat. of gerund etc., 505. a. Accompaniment, abl. of, 413. Accomplishment, vbs. of, w. subjv., 568. ACCUSATIVE, defined, 35. d; in -m and -s, 38. c; in -im, decl. III, 75. a, b; in -īs (plur.), 77; in -a, 81. 2; acc. of decl. IV, used as supine, 94. b; neut. acc. used as adv., 214. d, cf. 215. 1; fem. used as adv., id. 2. ACCUSATIVE, Syntax, 386–397 (see 338); w. vbs. of remembering, 350 and a, c, d; and gen. w. vbs. of reminding, 351; w. impersonals, 354. b, 388. c, 455.2; w. ad with interest and rēfert, 355. b; w. dat., 362; w. compounds of ad, ante, ob, 370. b; vbs. varying between acc. of end of motion and dat., 363; w. ad for dat., 385. a; after propior etc., 432. a; direct object, 274, 387; w. iuvō etc., 367. a; acc. or dat. w. vbs., 367. b, c; acc. w. vbs. of feeling and taste, 388. a, 390. a; w. comps. of circum and trāns, 388. b; cognate acc., 390; adverbial use of, 390. c, d and N.^2, 397. a; two accusatives, 391; pred. acc., 392–3; secondary object, 394–5; acc. w. pass. of vbs. of asking etc., 396. b. N.; synecdochical acc. (of specification), 397. b; in exclamations, id. d; duration and extent, 423, 425; end of motion, 426. 2; names of towns, domus, rūs, 427. 2; Rōmam ad urbem, 428. b; acc. w. ante diem, 424. g; w. preps., 220. a, c; w. ad or in to denote penalty, 353. 2. N.; w. prīdiē, propius, etc., 342. a; acc. of gerund, 506; of anticipation, 576; subj. of inf., 397. e, 452, 455. 2, 459; as pred. after inf., 455. a; subj. in ind. disc., 579, 581. Accusing and acquitting, vbs. of, constr., 352. ācer, decl., 115; compar., 125. -āceus, adj. ending, 247. aciēs, decl., 98. a. acquiēscō, w. abl., 431. Actions, names of, 237; nouns of action w. gen., 348. Active voice, 154. a, 156; change to pass., 275. Acts, nouns denoting, 239. -acus (-ācus), adj. ending, 249. acus, gend., 90. Exc. ad, use, 220. a, 221.2; in comp., 16, 267. a; w. acc. to denote penalty, 353. 2. N.;

.9īn in comps., w. dat., 370, 381; in comps., w. acc., 370. b; w. acc. with adjs., 385. a; end of motion, 426. 2, cf. 363; w. names of towns, 428. a; w. names of countries, 428. c; meaning near, 428. d; in expressions of time, 424. e; following its noun, 435; w. gerund, 506. additur, constr., 568. adeō (verb), constr., 370. b. adeō ut, 537. 2. N.^2. -adēs, patronymic ending, 244. adiuvō, w. acc., 367. a. Adjective pronouns, see Pronouns. ADJECTIVES. Definition, 20. b; formed like nouns, 109; ā- and o-stems, 110–112. Declension, 110–122; decl. I and II, 110–113; decl. III, 114–121; decl. III, three terminations, 115; one termination, 117, 118; variable, indeclinable, defective, 122. Comparison, 123–131; decl. of comparative, 120. Numeral adjs., 132–137; derivative adjs., 242–255. ADJECTIVES, Syntax. Masc. adjs., 122. d; adjs. of com. gend., id.; as advs., 214. d, e (cf. 218), 290; adj. as app., 282. b; as nouns, 288, 289; nouns used as adjs., 321. c; advs. used as adjs., 321. d; participles used as adjs., 494. Agreement of adjs., 286, 287; attribute and predicate, 287; use of neut. adjs., 289. Adjs. w. adverbial force, 290. Two comparatives w. quam, 292. Adj. pronouns, 296–298. Gen. of adjs. of decl. III instead of nom., 343. c. N.^1. Adjs. w. part. gen., 346. 2; w. dat., 383; w. acc., 388. d. N.^2; w. inf., 461; w. supine in -ū, 510. Position of adjs., 598. a, b. Adjective phrase, 277. admodum, use, 291. c. N.^1. admoneō, constr., 351. Admonishing, vbs. of, constr., 563. Adonic verse, 625. 3. adspergō, constr., 364. adūlor, constr., 367. b. Adverbial acc., 390. b, c, d, and N.^2, 397. a. Adverbial conjunctions, 20. g. N. Adverbial phrases, 216, 277. ADVERBS, defined, 20. e; formed from adjs., 214 and c, d, e, 218; case-forms or phrases, 215; comparison of advs., 218; numeral advs., 138. Classification of advs., 217; correlative forms of advs. of place, 217. N. ADVERBS, Syntax, 321. Advs. used as adjs., 321. d; adjs. w. adverbial force, 290; adverbial abl. abs., 419. c. Special uses, 322, 326. Advs. w. nouns, 321. c. N.; correlative advs. used as conjs., 323. f, g; part. gen. w. advs., 346. a. 4; dat. w. advs., 384; compar. of adv. followed by quam, 406; adv. as protasis, 521. a.

.9īn Adversative conjunctions, 223. a. 2, 224. I. b. adversus, 219; w. acc., 220. a; as adv., 433. 2. ae, diphthong, 2; sound of, 6. N.^3, 8. aedēs, sing. and plur., 107. a. aeger, decl., 112. a. aemulor, constr., 367. b. Aeneadēs, decl., 44. Aenēās, decl., 44. aequālis, decl., 76. a. 2; constr. w. gen., 385. c and 1. aequē ac, 384. N.^2. aequō (abl.), w. compar., 406. a. aequor, decl., 64. āēr, use of plur., 100. b. aes, use of plur., 100. b. aetās, decl., 72. aethēr, decl., 81. Affecting, acc. of, 386. affīnis, decl., 76. b. 2; constr. w. gen., 385. c and 1. Affirmative, expressed by two negatives, 326; nōnne expecting affirm. answer, 332. b; ways of saying yes, 336 and a. Agency, nouns of, 236; rel. clause equivalent to, 308. c. Agent, dat. of, w. gerundives, 374; w. perf. parts., 375; abl. of, 405; agent regarded as means, id. b; animal as agent, id. N.^2. ager, decl., 47. aggredior, constr., 370. b. Āgnōmen, 108. a. N. agō, forms of, omitted, 319. a. Agreeing, verbs of, w. gerundive, 500. 4. Agreement, 280; of nouns, 281; in app., 282; in predicate, 283; of adjs., 286; of demonstrative pronouns, 296; of possessive pronouns, 302; of relatives, 305, 306; of verbs, 316, 317. -āī for -ae, decl. I, 43. a; 603. a. 2. N. - aia, nouns in, decl., 43. e. N.^2. aiō, pronounced ai-iō, 6. c. - aius, names in, decl., 49. f; - aius in Prosody, -603. f. N.^2. -al, ending, 254. 7; nouns in, 68. ftn. 1. -al and -ar, neuters in (decl. III), 65. b, 76. a. 3. alacer, decl., 115. a; compar., 131. b. albus, not compared, 131. d. Alcaic verse, 625. 9, 10. Alcmanian strophe, 617. a. -āle, noun ending, 254. 7; list of nouns in, 68. ftn. 2. aliēnus, for possessive gen. of alius, 113. d, 343. a. aliquis (-quī), decl., 151. e; meaning, 310, 311. aliquot, indeclinable, 122. b. -ālis, -āris, adj. endings, 248.

.9īn alius, decl., 113; gen., id. c, cf. 343; compounds, 113. e; alius w. abl., ac, nisi, quam, 407. d. alius . . . alius, 315. a. Alphabet, 1; vowels and diphthongs, 1, 2; consonants, 3, 4; early forms of letters, 1. a and N., 6. a, b. alter, decl., 113. b; gen. and comps., id. c, e; use, 315; reciprocal use, 145. c, 315. a. alter ... alter, 315. a. altera est rēs ut, 568. ftn. 2. alteruter, decl., 113. e; use, 315. Although, how expressed, 527, 535. e. alvos (alvus), gend., 48. Exc. am-, see amb-. -am, adv. ending, 215. 2. amb- (am-, an-), inseparable prefix, 267. b. ambāgēs, decl., 78. 1. ambō, decl., p. 59. ftn.; ō in, p. 427. ftn. 1. āmēns, decl., 121. a. 3. amplius, without quam, 407. c. amussim, acc., 75. a. 3, 103. b. 4. an-, see amb-. an, anne, annōn, in double questions, 335. Anacrūsis, 608. g. Anapæst, 609. b. 2; anapæstic verse, 613, 628. a. Anaphora, 598. f. anceps, decl., 121. a. 3. Anchīsēs, decl., 44. Andromachē, decl., 44. -āneus, adj. ending, 247. animal, decl., 69. Animals, gend. of names of, 32, 34 and N.; regarded as means or agent, 405. b. N.^2. animī (loc.), w. adjs., 358; w. vbs., id. annālis, decl., 76. a. 2. Annalistic present, 469. a. Answers, forms of, 336, 337. ant-, ent-, stem-endings, 83. e. ante, 220. a; uses, 221. 3; compounded w. vbs., 267. a; in compounds, w. dat., 370, w. acc., id. b; adverbial use of, 433. 1; followed by quam, 434. ante diem, 424. g. Antecedent, its use w. relative, 305–307; undefined, constr., 535. See Indefinite antecedent. antecēdō, constr., 370. b. anteeō, constr., 370. b. antegredior, constr., 370. b. Antepenult, defined, 12. ftn. antequam, 550, 551; in ind. disc., 585. b. N. Antibacchīus, 609. d. N. Anticipation, acc. of, 576; becomes nom. id. N. Antithesis, 598. f. anus, gend., 90. Exc. -ānus, adjs. in, 249.

.9īn Aorist ( h̄ist. perf.), 161. 2, 473. apage, 206. g. apertus, compar. of, 124. a. Apex, 10. N. apis, decl., 78. 2. Apodosis, defined, 512; introduced by correl., id. b; may be subord., id. c; forms of, 514, 515 ff.; potential subjv., 447.3.N.; subjv. of modesty, 447.1; vbs. of necessity etc., 522. a; complex apod., 523; apod. omitted, 524; apod. in ind. disc., 589. 2. See Conditional Sentences. Appointing, vbs. of, constr., 393. Apposition, see Appositive. Appositive, defined, 282; agreement of, 281, 282. c; w. loc., id. d; gen. as app. to possessive, 302. e; gen. used for app., 343. d; so dat., 373. a; rel. clause equivalent to app., 308. c; acc. as app. to a clause, 397. f; app. instead of voc., 340. a; app. in connection with inf., 452 and N.^2. aptus ad, 385. a; aptus w. dat. of gerund etc., 505. a. ftn. 2; aptus quī, 535. f. apud, 220. a; use, 221.4; in quoting, 428. d. N.^2. aquālis, decl., 76. a. 2. -ar, nom. ending, decl. III, 68. a, 65. b, 76. -a. 2; 68. ftn. 1; gend., 87. arbor (-ōs), decl., 62. N.^2. arceō, constr., 364. N.^2. Archilochian verse, 622. arctus, gend., 48. Exc. ārdeō, w. abl., 404. a. -āria, suffix, 254. 2. -āris, adj. ending, 248. Aristophanic verse, 625. 2. -ārium, noun ending, 254. 3. -ārius, adj. ending, 250. a; noun ending, 254. 1. Arrangement of words, 595–601. Arsis and thesis, 611 and ftn. Arts, names of, decl. I, 44. artus, decl., 92. c. as, value of, 632; gen. of, 417. a. - as, in acc. plur. of Greek nouns, 81. 5. -ās, old gen. ending, 43. b; Greek nom. ending, 83. e; -patronymic, 244; gend. of nouns in, 86. b; -ās, -ātis, see -āt-; adjs. in -ās, 249. Asclepiadic verse, 625. 5, 6. Asking, vbs. of, w. two acc., 396; w. abl., 396. a; w. subjunctive clause, 563. Aspirates, 4 and ftn. 2. Assertions, direct, in indic., 157. a. Assimilation of consonants, 15. 6, 10; in prefixes, 16. āssō, -āssere, in fut. perf., 183. 5. ast, 324. d. -aster, as noun ending, 254. 11.

.9īn Asyndeton, 323. b, 601. c. At, meaning near, 428. d. at, use, 324. d; at enim, id.; at vērō, 324. k. āt-, patrial stem-ending, 71. 5; decl., 78. 3, 121. a. 4. āter, decl., 112. a; not compared, 131. d and N. Athematic verbs, 174. 2. Athōs, decl., 52. Atlās, decl., 82, 83. e. atque (ac), use, 324. b, c; after adjs. of likeness, 384. N.^2; after alius, 407. d. atquī, use, 324. d. atrōx, decl., 117. a. Attraction of case of relative, 306. a; of case of antecedent, id. N.; of subject in ind. disc., 581. N.^2. Attraction, subjunctive of, 591. 2, 593. Attributive adjective defined, 285. 1; number, 286. a; takes gend. of nearest noun, 287. 1. -ātus, adj. ending, 246. audācter, compar., 218. aula, decl., 44. aureus, not compared, 131. d. ausus as pres. part., 491. aut, use, 324. e, 335. d. N. autem, use, 324. d, j, 599. b. Author w. apud, 428. d. N.^2. Authority in Prosody, 602. avis, decl., 76. b. 1. -āx, verbal adj. ending, 251; adjs. in, w. gen., 349. c. baccar, decl., 76. a. 3. Bacchiac verse, 628. b. Bacchīus, 609. d. B aiae, decl., 43. e. N.^2. -bam, tense-ending, 168. b. Bargaining, vbs. of, constr., 563; gerundive, 500. 4; clause, 563. d. Base, 27. basis, decl., 82. Beginning, vbs. of, constr., 456. Believing, vbs. of, w. dat., 367. bellī, loc. use of, 427. a. bellum, decl., 46. bellus, compar., 131. a. Belonging, adjs. of, w. gen., 385. c. bene, comparison, 218; in phrase compounds, 12. a. Exc. 1, 266. b; compounds of, constr., 368. 2. Benefiting, vbs. of, constr., 367. -ber, names of months in, decl., 115. a. bicolor, decl., 122. a. bicorpor, 119. N. -bilis, verbal adj. ending, 252. Birds, gend. of names of, 32. Birth or origin, nouns of, derivation, 244; participles of, w. abl., 403. a. -bō, tense-ending, 168. c.

.9īn Bôī, decl., 49. f. bonus, decl., 110; compar., 129; w. dat. of gerund etc., 505. a. ftn. bōs, decl., 79 and b. bri-, stems ending in, 66; adjs. in, 115. a. -brum, suffix, 240. -bulum, suffix, 240. -bundus, verbals in, 253. b; w. acc., 388. d. -N.^2. būris, decl., 75. a. 1. Buying, vbs. of, constr. with, 417. c. C for g, in early use and as abbreviation, 1. a and N.; for qu, 6. a, b; quantity of final syllables ending in, 604. j. caedēs, decl., 78. 2. caelēs, decl., 121. a. 4. caelum, w. masc. plur., 106. b. Caere, decl., 76. b. N.^2. caesius, compar., 131. a. Cæsura, 611. b; masc. and fem., 615. c. N.; bucolic cæsura, id. Calendar, Roman, 631. Calends, 631. a. calx, decl., 103. g. 2. campester, decl., 115. a. Can, how expressed in Lat., 157. b. canālis, decl., 76. b. 2. canis, decl. and stem, 62. N.^3, 76. b. N.^3, 78. 1. CAP, root, 56. a. Capacity, measures of, 638. capitis, genitive, w. verbs of accusing, 352. a. caput, decl., 59. Capys, decl., 82. carbasus, gend., 48. Exc.; plur., 106. b. Cardinal numbers, 132; inflection of, 134. a–c; use of et with, 135. a, b; replaced by distributives, 137. b, d; w. ex or partitive genitive, 346. c. cārē, compar., 218. carō, decl., 79. cārus, compar., 124. Case-constructions, 338. Case-endings, 27. a; final vowels in, 38. g; table, 39. Case-forms, words defective in, 103. Cases, defined, 35; position of modifying case, 598. 2; agreement in, 281; origin and meaning of, 338; case of rel. pron., 305, 306. a; same case after as before certain conjs., 323. a. Construction of Cases, 338–435; Genitive, 342–359; Dative, 360–380; Accusative, 386–397; Vocative, 340; Ablative, 398–420; time and place, 423–431; cases w. preps., 220, 426. ftn. cassem, decl., 103. f. 3. castrum, castra, 107. Catalectic verse, 612. a.

.9īn causā, w. gen., 359. b, 404. c; w. gen. ??? gerund, 504. b. Causal clauses, 539, 540; w. indic. ??? subjv., quod, quia, 540; w. indic., quoniam, quandō, 540. a; w. quī, 535. e; w. cum, 540. d; nōn quia, nōn quod, etc., in the denial of a reason, 540. N.^3; causal clause replaced by part., 496; by abl. abs., 420. 2. Causal conjunctions, 223. a. 3, b. 7, 224. II. f; particles, 539, 540. Cause, abl. of, 404. Cause, advs. of, 217. c. Caution and effort, verbs of, constr., 563. e. cavē, in prohibitions, 450 (2) and N.^2; nē omitted after, 565. N.^1. caveō, constr., 563. -ce, enclitic, 146. N.^1 and a. N.^1. Ceasing, verbs of, w. complem. inf., ???400 cēdō, constr., 366. N.^2. celeber, decl., 115. a. celer, forms, 115. a. N.^2. cēlō, w. acc., 396. c. Celtibēr, decl., 50. c. cēnseō, constr., 563 and d. certē, certō, use, 322. c; in answers, 336. a. cētē, Greek plur., 48. a. N. cētera, 111. b; adverbial use, 390. d. N.^2; -us, use, 293; -ī, use, 315. ceu, use, 524. -ceus, adj. ending, 247. Characteristic, clauses of, 534, 535; proviso, 535. d; cause or concession, id. e; of result or characteristic, 559. Characteristic, expr. by participle, 496. Characteristic vowel, 37. Charge and penalty, gen. of, 352. Chiasmus, 598. f and N. Choliambic trimeter, 618. c. Choosing, vbs. of, w. two accs., 393. Choriambic verse, 624. N. Choriambus, 609. c. ci and ti, interchange of, 6. N.^1. -cinium, noun ending, 241. c. -ciō, diminutive ending, 243. a. cip-, stems in, decl. III, 56. a. circā, circum, circiter, use, 220. a, 221. 5–7; as advs., 433. 2. circā, w. gerund, 506. N.^1. circum, compounds w. vbs., 267. a; dat. w. such comps., 370; acc., 388. b. circumdō, constr., 364. Circumstances of action, 419, 420. 5; participle implying, 496. cis, citerior, 130. a. Cities, gend. of names of, 32 and a. See Locative. citrā, after its noun, 435. clādēs, decl., 78. 2. clam, constr., 432. d.

.9īn Classes, names of, gend. of, 30. a. N.^3; used in plur., 101. 3. Clauses, defined, kinds of, 278, 279; replaced by abl. abs., 420; used as nouns, 343. c; dependent, syntax of, 519–593; conditional rel., 279. c, 519; final, 279. d, 529–533; consecutive, 536, 537; causal, 539, 540; temporal, 543–556; substantive, 562–588; infinitive clauses, 452, 562. N.; substantive clauses of purpose, 563; of result, 567, 568; indic. w. quod, 572; indirect questions, 573–575; ind. disc., 578–593. clāvis, decl., 76. b. 1. Close syllables, 7. N.^2. coepī, 205. Cognate acc., 214. d. N., 390. Cōgnōmen, 108. Collective noun with sing. or plur. vb., 317. d. colus, gend., 90; decl., 105. a. com- (con-), compounded w. vbs., 16, 267. a; such may take dat., 370. Combinations of words, 13. comētēs, decl., 44. comitium, comitia, 107. Command, see Imperative; in hortatory subjv., 439. Commanding, vbs. of, w. dat., 367; w. inf., 563. a; w. subjv., 563 (cf. 580. a). Commands, expressed by imv., 448; for condition, 521. b; in ind. disc., 588; in informal ind. disc., 592. 1. commiseror, w. acc., 354. a. N. committō ut, 568 and N.^1. Common gender, 34; adjs. of, 122. d. Common syllables, 11. c, 603. f. commonefaciō, -fīō, constr., 351. commoneō, constr., 351. commūnis, w. gen., 385. c. commūtō, constr., 417. b. Comparative conjunctions, 223. b. 2, 224. II. b; in conditions, 524. Comparative suffix, 124. ftn.; of advs., 214. b. N. Comparatives, decl., 120; stem, id. b; neut. sing, of compar. adj. used as adv., 218; meaning of, 291; two comparatives, 292; compar. and positive w. quam, id. a. N.; abl. w. compar., 406; quam w. compar., 407. a; compar. w. quam (ut), quam quī, 535. c, 571. a. Comparison, conjunctions of, 323. a. Comparison, particles of, tamquam, quasi, etc., constr., 524. Comparison of adjs., 123 ff.; irregular, 129; defective, 130, 131; w. magis and maximē, 128; of advs., 218; prepositions implying, w. quam, 407. e. N., 434. Complementary infinitive, 456; has no subject, id. N.; pred. noun or adj. after,

.9īn 458; inf. partly subject, partly complementary, 454; by analogy, 457. a. compleō, constr., 356, 409. N. Completed action, tenses of, 160. b; how formed, 179. f, g; use of, 473 ff. Complex conditional sentences, 523. Complex sentence, 278. b. complūrēs, complūria, 120. c. compos, decl., 121. a. 4, b. 1. Composition, all word-formation a process of, 227; comp. to express relations of words, 338, 386. See Comp. words. Compound sentence, defined, 278. 2. Compound stems, imaginary, 255. a. Compound suffixes, 233. 2, 235. Compound verbs, 267; comps. of faciō, 204. a, b. Compound words, assimilation in, 15. 6, 16; defined, 264; how formed, 265–267. Compounds of preps., w. dat., 370; of ab, dē, ex, 381; w. acc., 388. b, 395; quantity of, 606. c. con-, see com-. Conative present, 467; imperfect, 471. c. concēdō, constr., 563 and c. Concession, hortatory subjv. of, 440 (cf. 526); particles of, 527; quamvīs, ut, 527. a; licet, id. b; etsī etc., id. c; cum, 549; quamquam, 527. d, e; quamvīs, w. indicative, 527. e; vbs. of, w. ut, 527. f; abl. abs. for concessive clause, 420. 3; concession implied in part., 496; quī concessive, 535. e. Concessive clauses, see Concession. Concessive conjunctions, 223. b. 3, 224, II. c; particles, use of, 527. Conclusion, see Apodosis. Concords, the four, 280. concors, decl., 119, 121. a. 3. Condemning, vbs. of, constr., 352. Conditional clauses, defined, 279. c. Conditional conjunctions, 223. b. 1, 224. II. a, 525. Conditional Particles, 524, 525. Conditional sentences, defined, 279. c; development, 511; protasis and apodosis, 512; classification, 514; Present and Past, nothing implied, 515; Future conditions, 516; fut. more vivid, id. 2. a; fut. less vivid, id. 2. b; perf. indic. in fut. cond., id. e; Contrary to fact, 517; indic. in contrary to fact condition, id. b, cf. c and notes; in old Latin, id. e. N.^2; General condition, 518; condition disguised, 521; as part. etc., id. a; as exhortation or command, id. b.; protasis omitted, 522; Potential Subjv., 446; Subjv. of Modesty, 447. 1; vbs. of necessity etc., 522. a; complex conditions, 523; clauses of Comparison (conclusion omitted), 524; Concessive

.9īn clauses, 527; Proviso, 528; use of sī and its comps., 525; conditional relative clauses, 519; temporal, 542, 551. c. N.^2; conditional sentences in ind. disc., 589. cōnfīdō, constr., 431 and N.^1. Conjugation, defined, 22. Conjugation of verbs, 171–193; how distinguished, 171; regular forms of, 173; mixed forms, id.; parallel forms, 189; stem-vowels of conjugations, 171–178; stems of the four conjugations, how modified, 179; paradigms of the four regular conjugations, 184–212. Conjunctions, defined, 20. g; classes of, 223; list of, 224. Syntax, 323. a, 324. a–k, 539, 540. notes; correlative use, 323. g; conjs. repeated, id. e; omitted, id. b; used together, 324. k. Conjunctive adverbs, 20. g. N. Conjunctive phrases, 224. Connectives, relatives used as, 308. f. cōnor, w. inf., 563. e.; cōnor sī, id. N.^1. Consecutive clauses, defined, 279. e; uses, 536–538; clauses of result or characteristic, 559. Consecutive conjunctions, 223. b. 5, 224. II. e. cōnsequor ut, 568. cōnsistere, w. abl., 403. b. ftn. 2, 431. Consonant stems of nouns, decl. III, 56–64; cons. stems of adjs., 117; case-forms, 121; of verbs, 259. a. 3. Consonant suffixes (primary), 234. II. Consonants, classification, 3; changes, 14–19; insertion, 15. 11; transposition, 177. a. N.; dissimilation, 15.6; assimilation, id. 16; pronunciation, 8 and N., 11. b. N. cōnsors, decl., 121. a. 3. cōnstāre, w. abl., 403. b. cōnstituō, constr., 563. d. Cōnstrūctiō ad sēnsum, see Synesis. Constructions of cases, 338–435 (see under Abl. etc.). cōnsuēvī, use, 476. cōnsul, decl., 62. cōnsulāris, decl., 76. a. 2. cōnsulō, w. dat. or acc., 367. c. Contention, words of, constr., 368. a, 413. b. contentus, w. abl., 431. a; w. perf. inf., 486. f. continērī, w. abl., 403. b. ftn. contingit ut, 568. Continued action, tenses of, 160, 161. Continuing, vbs. of, w. complementary inf., 456. contrā, use, 220. a, 221. 8, 321. d; as adv., 433. 4; position, 435. Contracted forms, vīn, ścīn, 13. N.; ǵen. in -ī, dat. and abl. in -īs, 49. a, b.

.9īn Contracting, vbs. of, w. gerundive, 500. 4. Contraction of vowels, 15. 3; quantity, 10. c; in prosody, 603. c; of syllables, 608. d. Contrary to fact conditions, 517; in ind. disc., 589. b. conveniō, w. acc., 370. b. Co ordinate conjunctions, 223. a, 224. a–d; co ord. clauses, 278. a; co ord. words without conj., 323. b; w. conj., id. c. Copula, 272, 283; position of, 598. j. Copulative conjunctions, 223. a. 1, 224. I. a; constr. after, 323; omission of, 323. b. Copulative verbs, 272, 283. cor, decl., 59, 60. b, 103. g. 2. corpus, decl., 64. Correlatives, 152, 323. g; rendered by the . . . the, 414. a; advs. of place, 217. a; conjs., 323. f, g. cōs, decl., 103. g. 2. Countries, names of, gend., 32; as end of motion, and place from which, 428. c. Crāsis, 603. c. crēber, decl., 112. a. crēdibilī, w. comparative, 406. a. crēdō, position of, 599. c. Cretic foot, 609. d; verse, 628. c. Crime or charge, gen. of, 352. -crum, noun ending, 240. crux, decl., 103. g. 2. cucumis, decl., 75. a. c uiās, c uius, 145. b, 151. h. cuicui modī, 151. b. N. c uius modī, 345. a. -culum, noun suffix, 240. -culus, dim. ending, 243. cum, quom (conj.), form, 544; meaning, 544 ff.; cum . . . tum, 323. g, 549. b; sequence, 485. e. N.; w. clause for part., 492, 493. 2; temporal, 545–548; causal or concess., 549; in ind. disc., 585. b. N.; cum (whenever), 545. N.^2, 548. cum (prep.), 220. b; in comp., see com-; joined as enclitic with pronouns, 143. f, 150. d; use of, 221.9; w. plur.adj., 286. a. N.; w. plur. verb, 317. N.; w. abl. of manner, 412; w. abl. of accompaniment, 413; w. words of contention, 413. b; w. words of exchange, 417. b. N. -cumque, added to relatives, 151. a and N.; temporal -particles w., 542. -cundus, verbal adj. ending, 253 and b. cupiō, constr., 563. b. cūrō, constr., 563; cūrā (imv.), use, 449. c. -cus, suffix, 232. N., 249. Customary action, 470, 518. c. D changed to s, 15.5; -d, old abl. ending, decl. I, 43. N.^1; decl. II, 49. e; decl. III,

.9īn p. 34. ftn.; decl. IV, 92. f; mēd, tēd, 143. a. N.; sēd, 144. b. N.^2; -ē in advs. originally -ēd, 214. a. N.; -d as neut. pron. ending, 113. b; loss of -d, 398. Dactyl, 609. b; cyclic, id. e. Dactylic verse, 613; hexameter, 615; elegiac stanza, 616; other forms, 617. -dam, adverbial ending, 215. 6. damnās, indecl. adj., 122. b. daps, defect., 103. h. 2. Daring, vbs. of, w. compl. inf., 456. Dates, how expressed, 424. g, 631. DATIVE defined, 35. c; in -āī, decl. I, 43. a; in -ābus, decl. I, id. e; in -īs for -iīs, decl. II, 49. f; in -ubus, decl. IV, 92. c; in -ī (of ūnus etc.), 113. DATIVE, Syntax, 360–385. Indirect object, 361; w. transitives, 362; w. vbs. implying motion, 363; use of dōnō etc., 364; in pass., 365; w. intransitives, 366; w. phrases, id. a; like gen., id. b; w. intransitives, verbs meaning favor etc., 367; similar vbs. w. acc. id. a; vbs. having dat. or acc., id. b, c; w. verbal nouns, id. d; w. libet and licet, 368. 1; w. comps. of satis, bene, male, id. 2; poetic use, id. a; intrans. vbs. w. acc. and dat., 369; w. comps. of preps. ad, ante, etc., 370; w. passive used impersonally, 372. Of Possession, 373; w. nōmen est, id. a; w. dēsum and absum, id. b. Of the Agent, 374, 375. Of Reference, 376, 377; of the person judging, 378; used idiomatically, 379; ethical dat., 380. Of Separation, 381. Of Purpose, 382; w. adjs. and advs., 383; w. adjs. of fitness etc., 384, 385; gen. or dat. w. similis, 385. c. 2. With words of contention (poetic), 413. b. N. Of End of Motion, 428. h; w. infin., 455. 1; dat. of gerund, 505. a. Datīvus commodī aut incommodī, 376. dē, use, 220. b, 221. 10; in comp. w. vbs., 267. a; in comp. w. vbs., w. dat., 381; in comp. w. vbs., w. abl., 402; w. abl. instead of part. gen., 346. c; w. vbs. of reminding, 351. N.; w. abl. to denote the crime, 353. 2; w. place from which, 426. 1; position of dē, 435; dē w. abl. of gerund, 507. dea, decl., 43. e. dēbeō, in apod., 517. c. dēbuī, w. pres. inf., 486. a; w. perf. inf., id. b. dēcernō, constr., 563. d and N.^2. decet, w. acc., 388. c; w. dat., id. N.^3; in apod., 517. c. Declarative sentence, 269. a; how expressed in ind. disc., 580. Declension defined, 22; characteristics of, 37; general rules for, 38; terminations, 39. Of Nouns, I, 40–44; II,

.9īn 45–52; III, 53–87; IV, 88–94; V, 95–98; decl. V compared with I, 98. c. Of Adjs., decl. I–II, 109–113; decl. III, 114–122; of comparatives, 120; of participles, 109, 117. b. Decreeing, vbs. of, 563. d. dĕdī, quantity of penult, 605. Exc. Defective adjectives, 111. b, 122. c. Defective comparison, 130. Defective nouns, 99–103; of decl. IV, 94. c; of decl. V, 98. a. Defective verbs, 205–206. dēficiō, constr., 367. a. Definite perfect, 161.1, 473; sequence of 485. a. dēflt, 204. c. dēgener, 119. N., 121. a. 3. Degree, adverbs of, 217. c. Degree of difference, abl. of, 414; distance expressed by, 425. b. Degrees of Comparison, 123. deinde, dēnique, in enumerations, 322. d. N. dēlectat, constr., 388. c. dēlectō, w. acc., 367. a. dēlector, w. abl., 431. Deliberative subjunctive, 443, 444; in indir. questions, 575. b; in ind. disc., 587. dēlicium, -ia, -iae, 106. b. Delivering, vbs. of, w. gerundive, 500. 4. Dēlos, decl., 52. delphīn, decl., 83. a. -dem, adverbial ending, 215. 6. Demanding, vbs. of, w. gerundive, 500. 4. Demonstrative adverbs, as correlatives, 323. g; equivalent to demonstr. pron. w. prep., 321. a. Position, 598. b. Demonstrative pronouns, 146; decl., id.; formation, id. N.^1. Syntax, 296–298; of 1st person, 297. a; of 2d pers., id. c; of 3d pers., id. b; supply place of pers. prons. of 3d pers., 295. c; in relative clause, 308. d. N. Position, 598. b. dēnārius, value of, 632. Denominative verbs, 258–262. Dependent clauses, subjv. used in, 438. b. Deponent verbs defined, 156. b; how conjugated, 190; paradigms, id.; participles, id. a; fut. inf., id. c; used reflexively, id. e; in passive sense, id. f; list of irregular deponent verbs, 191; defective deponents, id. a; semi-deponents, 192. Depriving, constr. w. vbs. of, 401. Derivation of words, 227–267. Derivative forms of nouns, 236–241; of adjs., 242–255; of vbs., 258–263. Derivative verbs, defined, 257. Derivatives, quantity of, 606. -dēs, nouns in, 244. Description, imperf. used in, 471. a. Description implied in part., 496.

.9īn Descriptive abl., see Abl. of quality. †dēses, decl., 121. a. 4. Desiderative verbs (in -uriō), 263. 4. Desire, adjs. of, w. gen., 349. a. dēspērō, constr., 367. b. dēterior, compar. of, 130. a. Determinative compounds, 265. 2. Determining, vbs. of, constr., 563. d. deus, decl., 49. g. dexter, decl., 111. a; compar., 129. dī-, see dis-. Diæresis, 611. c. Diastole, 612. b. dīc, imperative, 182. diciōnis, defect., 103. e. dīcō, forms of, omitted, 319. a. dictō, w. comp., 406. a. -dicus, adjs. in, comparison of, 127. Dīdō, decl., 82. diem dīcere, w. dat. of gerund etc., 505. diēs, decl., 96; gender, 97. a; gen. form diī, 98. N. Difference, abl. of degree of, 414. difficilis, comparison, 126; constr., 510. N.^2. dīgnor, w. abl., 418. b. N.^1. dīgnus, w. abl., 418. b; w. relative clause, 535. f. Dimeter, iambic verse, 619. c. Diminutive endings, w. nouns and adjectives, 243; verbs, 263. 3. din-, stem-ending, 61. 2. Diphthongs, 2; sound of, 8; quantity, 10. b, 603. b. Diptotes, 103. c. Direct object, 274, 387. Direct question, defined, 330. 1. Direct quotation, 578. N. Direct reflexive, 300. b. dis- (dī-), inseparable prefix, 267. b. Disjunctive conjunctions, 224. I. a; case of noun after, 323. Dissimilation, 15. 6. dissimilis, comp., 126. Distance, acc. or abl., 425. b; of time, 424. f. Distributive numerals, 136; use, 137. Distributive pronouns, 313. diū, compar., 218. a. dīves, decl., 119, 121. b. dīvum (dīvom), for deōrum, 49. g. N. -dō, adverbial ending, 215. 6. -dō, nouns in, from st. din-, 61. 2; gend., 86. dō, conj., 202; w. inf., 460. a. doceō, constr., 396 and c. N.^2. domī, locative, 427. 3. domum, 427. 2; domō, id. 1. domus, gend., 90. Exc.; decl., 93; double stem of, id.; locative form, 93. N.^1. dōnec, w. ind. or subjv., 553 N.^1, 2, 554, 555.

.9īn dōnō, double constr. of, 364. dōs, decl., 71. 6. Double consonants, 4, 11. b. Double questions, 334; answers to, 337. Doubting, vbs. of, constr., 558. Dual forms, p. 59. ftn. Dubitative subjv., see Deliberative. dubitō an, 331. N.; nōn dubitō quīn, 558. a; nōn dubitō, w. inf., id. N.^2; without neg., id. N.^1. dūc, imperative, 182. dum, derivation, 215. 6; w. past, id. a; w. clause for pres. and perf. part., 492, 493. 2; introducing a proviso, 528; as adv., 552; until, w. pres. or impf. subjv. denoting intention or expectancy, 553; w. pres. or fut. perf. indic. to state future fact, id. N.^2; w. perf. indic., 554. N.; as long as, w. indic., 555 (cf. 556. a); while, w. pres. indic., 556; w. past indic., id. a. dummodo, 528. duo, decl., 134. b. duplī, w. vbs. of condemning, 352. a. Duration, acc. of, 423; abl. of, 424. b. -dus, participle in, see Gerundive. Duty, vbs. of, in apod., 517. c. dux, decl., 57. ĕ, variant of ŏ as stem-vowel of decl. II, 45. c and N.; in voc., id.; abl. of neuters in, decl. III, 76. a. 3; gend. of neuters in, decl. III, 87; abl. in, of adjs. of two and three terminations, 116. N., 117, 121. a; stem-vowel, conj. III, 171, 174. 1, 179. c; final, quantity of, 604. e. ē, for ae (oe), 6. N.^3; in Greek voc., 81. 3; in stem of decl. V, 98; in gen. of decl. V, 98. d. N.; in dat., id.; in stem of conj. II, 171, 179. b; -ē as adv. ending, 214. a, c. ē (preposition), see ex. eae, old dat. fem. of is, 146. N.^3. Early forms of alphabet, 1. a and N., 6. a, b; of prosody, 629. ecce (eccum etc.), 146. a. N.^2. ecquis, decl., 151. f; use, 310. a. Ecthlipsis, 612. f. ēdīcō, constr., 563. d. edō (eat), conj., 201. Effecting, vbs. of, w. perf. part., 497. c; w. ut-clause, 580. d. efficiō ut, 568. effierī, 204. c. effigiēs, decl., 98. a. Effort, vbs. of, w. ut-clause, 563. e. egēns, decl., 118. egeō, constr., 356 and N. ego, decl., 143. ei, diphthong, 2; sound of, 8. -eis for -īs in plur. of decl. I, 43. e. N.^2. -ēis, patronymic, 244.

.9īn - eius, adj. ending, 249; in prosody, 11. d, 603. -f. N.^2. - eius, names in, decl., 49. f. eiusmodī, 146. b, 345. a. Ēlectra, decl., 44. Elegiac stanza, 616. ???-ēlis, adj. ending, 248. Elision, 612. e. Ellipsis, 640. ellum etc., 146. a. N.^2. -ellus, diminutive ending, 243. ēluviēs, decl., 98. a. em, combined w. prons. (ellum etc.), 146. a. N.^2. Emphasis, 597. en- (on-, ēn-, ōn-), primary suffix, 234. II. 13. Enclitics, accent, 12. a; quantity, 604. a. 1; cum, 143. f, 150. b, d; -met, -te, -pte, 143. d and N.; -pse, 146. N.^7, 8; -ce, id. a. N.^1; -que, see under that word. End of motion, acc. of, 426. 2; w. vbs. that also take dat., 363; dat. of, 428. h; two or more places as end of motion, 428. j. Endings, signification of, 235–263; endings of verb, 165. 2, 166. See Personal endings, and Terminations. English method of pronunciation, 8. N. English words cognate with Lat., 18, 19. enim, use, 324. h; position, 324. j, 599. b. -ēnsimus (or -ēsimus), numeral adj. ending, 133. N.^1. -ēnsis, gentile ending, 249. Enumeration, prīmum ... deinde, 322. d. N. -ēnus, adj. ending, 249. Envy, vbs. of, w. dat., 367. eō, used w. supine in -um, 428. i, 509. N.^1. eō, used w. quō, 414. a; w. compar., id.; approaching abl. of cause, id. N. eō cōnsiliō ut, 531. 1. N.^1. Epicene nouns, 34. N. Epistolary tenses, 479. epitomē, decl., 44. epulum, plur. -ae, 106. b. equester, decl., 115. a. equidem, 322. f. N. er- for es-, primary suffix, 234. II. 17. er-, stem-ending, 63. Exc. 2. -er, nom. ending, decl. II, 45–47; decl. III, 61. 4, 65. a; -gend., 85; -er, adjs. in, 111, 112, 115; compar. of these, 125. ergā, w. acc. after adjs., 385. b. ergō, use, 324. i; w. gen., 359. b. -erim, -erō, as tense-ending, 169. c, d. -ernus, adj. ending, 250. ero-, noun stems in, decl. II, 50; ēro-, adj. stems in, 111. a. N. ES, root of esse, 15. 4; 170. b. N. es- (os-), primary suffix, 234. II. 17. -ĕs, in nom. plur. of Greek nouns, 81. 4; gend. of nouns in, 85.

.9īn -ēs, gen. of Greek nouns in, decl. II, 52. a. gen. ending, -decl. V, 98. N. -ēs, list of nouns in, p. 30. ftn. 2; gend., 86; formation, 238. -a. esse, conj., 170; forms of, in other languages, id. b. N.; compounds of, 198; case after, 284; dat. of poss. w., 373; future part. w. (first periph. conj.), 498. a, b; position of forms of, 598. c, j. est, united with other words, 13. N.; est quī etc., 535. a; est cum, 535. a. N.^3; est ut, 569. 3. Esteeming, vbs. of, constr., 393. -ester (-estris), adj. ending, 250; a noun-ending, 254. 11. ēstur, ēssētur, pass. forms of edō, 201. a. et, use, 324. a; et . . . et, 323. e; et repeated or omitted, 323. c. et, -que, or atque translated but, 324. d. N. etenim, use, 324. h, k. Ethical dative, 380. etiam, use, 322. a; in answers, 336. a. 1. etiam sī, concessive, 527. c. etsī, use, 527. c. -ētum, noun ending, 254. 8. -eus, Greek names in, 52. e; -eus, patronymic ending, 244; -adj. ending, 247, 249, 254. 10. ēvenit ut, 568. ftn. 2. ex (ē), 220. b; use, 221. 11; in compounds, 267. a, 402; abl. w., instead of part. gen., 346. c; in vbs. w. dat., 381; w. prons. etc., 403. a. N.^1; to express place from which, 426. 1; expressing position, 429. b; after its noun, 435; w. abl of gerund, 507. excellō, w. dat., 368. 3. Exchanging, vbs. of, 417. b. Exclamation, form of, 333. N.; nom. in, 339. a; acc. in, 397. d; w. infin., 462. Exclamatory questions, 462. a. Exclamatory sentences, 269. c; nom. in, 339. a; gen. in, 359. a; acc. in, 397. d. Existence, general expressions of, 535. a. exlēx, defect., 122. c. Expecting, hoping, etc., vbs. of, w. ind. disc., 580. c; w. complem. inf., id. N. expēnsum, 496. N.^4. exsiliō, w. abl., 404. a. exspēs, defect., 122. c. exsultō, w. abl., 404. a. exterī, use, 130. b. exterior, 130. b. extrēmus, form, 130. a. ftn. 2. exuō, constr., 364. F, original sound of, 1. b. N. faber, decl., 112. a. fac, imv., 182, 204; fac (ut), w. subjv. 449. c; fac nē, in prohibition, 450. N.^2. faciēs decl., 98. a.

.9īn facilis, compar., 126; w. supine, 510. N.^2. faciō, accent of comps. of, 12. a. Exc.; forms of, omitted. 319. a; w. abl., 403. c; w. names of authors, 497. d. N.; facere ut, 568. N.^1. Factitive acc., 386; verbs, 273. N.^1. -factō, in compounds, 266. a. faenebris, decl., 115. N.^1. faex, decl., 103. g. 2. fallit, w. acc., 388. c. falsus, compar., 131. a. famēs, abl. of, 76. b. N.^1, 98. d. familiāris, decl., 76. b. 2. familiās, in pater familiās etc., 43. b. fās, indecl., 103. a; w. supine in -ū, 510. faux, decl., 101. N.^1, 103. f. 4. Favor, vbs. of, w. dat., 367. fax, decl., 103. g. 2. Fearing, vbs. of, w. inf., 456; w. nē, nē nōn, ut, 564. febris, decl., 75. b, 76. b. 1. Feeling, nouns of, w. gen., 348; impersonal vbs. of, 208. b, 354. b; animī w. vbs. and adjs. of, 358; gen. w. vbs. of, 354; acc. w. vbs. of, 388. a; quod-clause w. vbs. of, 572. b. Feet in Prosody, 608–610. fēlīx, compar., 124. Feminine, rule for gend., 32. femur, decl., 105. g. -fer, comps. of, 50; decl., 111. a. fer, imperative, 182. ferō, conj., 200; acceptum (expēnsum) ferre, 496. N.^4; comps. of, 200. a. ferre, ferrem, for †ferse etc., p. 110. ftn. 3. Festivals, plural names of, 101. 2; in -alia, 254. 7. -ficus, adjs. in, comparison of, 127. a. fidēs, decl., 96. fīdō (cōnfīdō), semi-deponent, 192; w. dat., 367; w. abl., 431. fīdus, compar., 131. a. fierī, constr. w. abl., 403. c. Fifth Declension, 95–97. Figūra etymologica, 598. m. fīlia, decl., 43. e; fīlius, voc., 49. c. Filling, words of, w. abl., 409. a; w. gen., id. N. Final Clauses, defined, 279. d; constr. of, 530–532; as subst. clauses, 563. Final conjunctions, 223. b. 6, 224. II. e. Final syllables, rules of quantity, 604; vowels, id. a–h. fīnis, decl., 76. b. Finite verb, defined, 154. N.; subj. of, 339. fīō, conj., 204; in compounds, id. b; defective compounds of, id. c; quantity of i in, 603. a. 3. First Conjugation, prin. parts, 173; pres. stem, how formed, 176. a; formation,

.9īn 179. a, 259; paradigms, 184; vbs. of, 209; vbs. of, how formed, 259. First Declension, 40–42. fīsus, as pres. part., 491. fit ut, 568. ftn. 2, 569. 2. Fitness, adjs. of, w. dat., 384, 385. a. flāgitō, constr., 563. floccī, gen. of value, 417. a. For, when expressed by prō, 379. N. forās, 103. c. 4, 215. 3. fore, 170. a; perf. part. w., 164. c. N.; fore ut, 569. a. forem, 170. a. forēs, plur. only, 101. 4, 103. c. 4. Forgetting, vbs. of, 350; w. inf., 456. forīs (locative), 103. c. 4, 215. 4, 427. a. Formation of words, 227–267. Forms of the verb, 180 ff. fors, forte, 103. c. 1. forsan, 447. b. N. forsitan (fors sit an), 216. N.; w. subjv., 447. a. fortasse, 447. b. Fourth Conjugation, prin. parts, 173; pres. stem, how formed, 176. a, 179. d; paradigm, 187; list of vbs., 212; vbs., how formed, 262. Fourth Declension, 88–94. Fractional expressions, 135. e, 637. fraus, decl., 71. 6. Freedom, adjs. of, w. abl., 402. a; vbs. of, 401. French, derivations through, 19. N.^2. Frequentative verbs, 263. 2. frētus, w. abl., 431. a. Fricatives, 4. 5. frūgī, defect. noun, 103. f. 1; as adj., 122. b; compar., 129; constr., 382. 1. N.^2. fruor, fungor, w. abl., 410; w. acc., id. a N.^1; gerundive, 503. N.^2. fugit, w. acc., 388. c. fuī, derivation of, 170. b. N. Fulness, adjs. of, 349. a. fūnebris, decl., 115. N.^1. fungor, see fruor. Future conditions, 516; in ind. disc., 589. a. Future tense, use, 472; of inf. pass., how formed, 203. a; of imv., 449; ind. for imv., id. b; in indirect questions, 575. Future Infinitive, how formed, 164. 3. b, c, 193. N.; expressed with fore or futūrum esse, 569. a; (rarely) in contrary to fact conditions in ind. disc., 589. b. N.^3. Future Participle, use, 158. b, 489, 498, 517. d; fut. pass. part., 500. Future Perfect tense, suffix of, 169. c; use of, 478; represented in subjv., 484. c; in conditions, 516. c.

.9īn futūrum esse ut, see fore ut; futūrum fuisse ut, 589. b. 3 and N.^2. Futūrum in praeteritō, 511. ftn. 1. G (the character), 1. a and N. Games, plur. names of, 101. 2. gaudeō, conj., 192; w. abl., 431; w. quod or ind. disc., 572. b. Gems, gend. of, 32 and b, 48. Exc. Gender, kinds of, 30; general rules for, 31–34; common, epicene, 34; change of gend., p. 18. ftn.; nouns, decl. I, gend., 42; decl. II, 48; nouns, decl. III, gend. according to endings, 84–87; of nouns, decl. IV, 90, 91; decl. V, 97; Syntax: agreement in gend., 280; of appositives, 282. c; of adjs., 286; adjs. w. nouns of different genders, 287 (cf. 289. c); of rel., 306. b. General conditions, defined, 513.2; constr. of, 518; relatives in, 520. General truths after past tense (in sequence of tenses), 485. d; in pres., 465; in general condition, 518. a. GENITIVE, defined, 35. b; terminations of, 37; plur. in -um, 38. f; gen. in -āī and -ās, decl. I, 43. a, b; in -ī for -iī, decl. II, 49. b; in -ī of proper nouns of decl. III, 52. a; gen. plur. in -um (-om), for -ōrum, 49. d; -um for -ium, decl. III, 78; -ŏs for -is, 81. 1; gen. plur. in -um, 92. b; in -ī or -ē for -ēī, decl. V, 98. N.; gen. plur. wanting, 103. g. 2; of adjs. in -ius, 113; gen. plur. in -ium or -um, 121. b. GENITIVE, Syntax, 342–356; general use, 342. Subjective gen., 343. N.^1. Possessive gen., 343; in app. w. poss. pron., 302. e; compared w. dat., 373. N.; gen. in predicate, 343. b, c; gen. of adj. for neut. nom., 343. c. N.^1; gen. of substance or material, 344; for app., 343. d; gen. of quality, 345. Partitive, 346. Objective, 347 ff.; w. adjs., 349, 385. c; w. vbs. of memory, 350; charge and penalty, 352; of feeling, 354; w. impers., miseret etc., 354. b; w. rēfert and interest, 355; of plenty and want, 356; of exclamation, 359. a; w. potior, 357. a; w. other vbs., id. b; w. egeō and indigeō, 356. N.; gen. for abl., id.; gen. replaced by dat., 366. b; of value, 417; gen. of gerundive, 504. genius, voc. of, 49. c. Gēns, or family, names, 108. Gentile adjectives, 244. gentīlis, 76. a. 2. genū, decl., 89; gend., 91. genus, decl., 64. -ger, compounds of, 50; decl., 111. a. Gerund, form, 155. b; meaning, 159. a; gerundive used instead, 503. Syntax,

.9īn 502–507; gen. of, 504; w. direct obj., id. a; pred. use, purpose, id. a. N.^1; w. obj. gen., id. c; dat. of, 505; in law phrases etc., id. b; acc. of, 506 and N.^1; abl. of, 507; gerund co ordinated w. nominal constr. and in app., 503. a. N.^2; w. direct obj., 503. a. N.^1. Gerundive, meaning and form, 155. a and ftn. 3, 158. d; in -endus or -undus, p. 89. ftn. 1; of dep. vb., 190. d; use as part. or adj., 500; of ūtor, id. 3; to denote purpose after certain vbs., id. 4; used for gerund, 503. Gerundive constructions in cases, gen., 504; dat., 505; acc., 506; abl., 507. Impersonal w. esse, w. acc., 500. 3. gibber, decl., 111. a. gin-, stem-ending, 61. 2. Giving, vbs. of, w. gerundive, 500. 4. glaber, decl., 112. a. glaciēs, decl., 98. a. glīs, decl., 71. 6. glōrior, w. abl., 431. Glyconic verse, 623. 1, 624, 625. 1, 12. Gnomic perfect, 475. -gō, nouns in, from stem gin-, ???61. 2; gend., 86. gracilis, decl., 122. a; compar. 126. Grammar, how developed, 268. Grammatical gender, 30. b. grātiā, w. gen., 359. b, 404. c; w. gen. of gerund, 533. grātificor, w. dat., 368. 3. grātulor, w. dat., id. Greek accusative (synecdochical), 397. b. Greek forms compared w. Latin, pp. 13, 14, 19, 26, 55, 58, 76, 80, 83, 126, 142, 143, 150, 153. Greek nouns, decl. I, 44; decl. II, 52; decl. III, 81, 82, 83. Greek proper names, quantity of, 603. 4. Groups of words, conjunctions w., 323. c. grūs, decl., 79. a. Guilt, adjs. of, w. gen., 349. a. H (breathing), 4; omitted in spelling, 6. d. N.^2; in prosody, 603. a, 612. e. habeō, w. infinitive, 460. a; w. perfect participle, 497. b; future imperative habētō in sense of consider, 449. a. habilis, w. dat. of gerund etc., 505. a. ftn. hāctenus, 221. 26. N.^1. Hadria, gen., 42. Exc. haec for hae, 146. N.^2. haereō, w. abl., 368. 3. N. Happening, vbs. of, constr., 569. 2. Have, perf. w., origin, 497. b. ftn. havē (avē), defective verb, 206. g. Having, vbs. of, w. gerund., 500. 4. hebes, decl., 86. a; compar., 124. Help, vbs. of, w. dat., 367.

.9īn Hemiolic measures, 609. d. Heroic verse, 615. hērōs, decl., 82. Hesitation, clauses of, w. quīn, 558, 559; vbs. of, constr., 456. Heteroclite nouns, 105; adjs., 122. a. Heterogeneous nouns, 106. Hexameter verse, 615. Hiātus, 612. g. Hibēr, decl., 50. c. hībus, 146. N.^2. hīc, 146, N.^1; decl., 146; use, 297. a, e, f; quantity, 604. j, Exc. Hidden quantity, 11. f and N. hiemps (for hiems), 15. 11. hilaris (-us), 122. a. Himself (ipse, sē), 298. c. N.^2. Hindering, vbs. of, with nē or quōminus, or inf., 558. b and N. Hindrance, vbs. of, w. quōminus, 558. b; w. negatives, followed by quīn, 558, 559. Historical infinitive, 463; takes secondary sequence, 485. f. Historical perfect, 161. 2, 473. Historical present, 469; followed by primary or secondary tenses, 485. e. hodiē, loc. form, 98. b, 215. 5. honor (-ōs), decl., 62. N.^2. Hoping, verbs of, with ind. disc., 580. c; w. complem. inf., id. N. Horace, metres of, 626. horizōn, decl., 83. d. Hortatory subjunctive, 439; in concession, 440; in proviso, 528; in obligation, 439. b; w. force of protasis, 521. b. hortor, constr., 563. hospes, decl., 121. a. 4. hospita (fem. of hospes), 121. ???. h uiusmodī, 146. b. humī, 49. a; locative use of, 427. a. humilis, compar., 126. Hundreds, how declined, 134. c. Hypotaxis, 268. ???, as vowel and as cons., 1, 10; i as transient sound between cons. i and a preceding vowel, 6. c (cf. 11. e). i-, primary suffix, 234. I. 2. ???ĭ, for ē in conj. II, 179. b. 2; for -ĕ in conj. III, id. c. 1; lost in vbs. in -iō of conj. III, id. and e; inserted in vb. stem, 176. b. 2. -ĭ in Greek voc., 82. -ī, (single) in gen. of nouns in -ius (-ium), 49. b; in -gen. of nouns in -ēs, 52. a; in abl. of decl. III, 76; in -loc. of decl. III, p. 34. ftn. 1; in gen., decl. IV, 92. a; in -gen., dat., decl. V. 98. d. N.; in dat. of ūnus etc., -113; in pres. pass. inf., p. 286. ftn. 1; in perfect, 163. ftn. 3.

.9īn i-stems, decl. III, 66–78; confused, 73; signs of, 74; in adj., 117; cases retaining -i, cf. 74, 76, 114, 116. N.; i-stems in vbs., 179. d. -ia, ending of abstract nouns, 241. -ia, nom. and acc. plur. decl. III, 74. b; of adjs., 116, 117. -ia for -iēs, decl. V, 98. c. iaciō, comps. of, 6. d, 603. f. N.^3. iam, derivation, 215, 6; use, 322. b; w. impf., 471. c. N. Iambic verse, 613; trimeter, 618; other forms, 619. Iambus, 609. a. 2. iamdiū, w. pres., 466; w. impf., 471. b. iamdūdum, w. pres., 466; w. impf. 471. b; w. imperative, 466. N.^2. -ībam for -iēbam, conj. IV, 183. 1. -ībō for -iam, 183. 1. ībus, 146. N.^8. -īcius, 247. Ictus, 608. N., 611. a. -icus, 249. id-, stem-ending, 83. b. id genus, 397. a. id quod, 307. d. id temporis, 346. 3, 397. a. idcircō, as correl., 324. i; w. final clause, 531. 1. N.^1. īdem, decl., 146; derivation, 146. N.^9; w. dat., 384. N.^1; w. atque or rel., id. N.^2; used emphatically, 298. a; equiv. to adv., id. b. Ides (13th or 15th of month), how reckoned, 631. b. -idēs (-īdēs), in patronymics, 244. idōneus, compar., 128; w. dat. of gerund etc., 505. a. ftn. 2. idōneus quī, 535. f. -idus, verbal adj. ending, 251. īdūs, decl. IV, gender, 90. Exc. (See Ides.) -ie, in voc. of adjs. in -ius, 110. a. iecur, decl., forms from different stems, 79. c, 105. g. iēns (part, of eō), decl., 119. -ier in inf. pass., 183. 4. -iēs, noun ending, 241; in decl. V -īa, decl. I, 98. c. igitur, meaning, 324. i; position, id. j. īgnis, decl., 76. b. 1. -iī (or -ī), in gen., decl. II, 49. b and ftn.; of adjs., -110. a. iī, iīs, for ī, īs, from is, 146. -ile, noun ending, 254. 6. -īlis, -bilis, verbal adj. ending, 252. -īlis, nominal adj. ending, 248. Illative conjunctions, 223. a. 4, 224. I. d. ille, forms, 146. N.^4, 6; decl., 146; use, 297. b, e; combined w. -ce, 146. a. N.^1. illic, decl., 146. a. -illō, vbs. ending in, 263. 3.

.9īn illus, diminutive ending, 243. illūstris, decl., 115. N.^1. -im, acc. ending, decl. III, 73–76. -im, in pres. subjv., 183. 2. imber, decl., 66, 67, 76. b. immāne quantum, 575. d. immō, how used, 329. Imperative mood, 154. b; how used, 157. c; terminations, 163. b, 179. e; dīc, dūc, fac, fer, 182; some vbs. used chiefly in, 206. g; w. iam dūdum, 466. N.^2; in commands, 448; 3d pers., 448. a; forms in ind. disc., 588; fut., 449 and a; various periphrases for imv., 449, c; imperative as protasis, 521. b. Imperative Sentence, 269. d. Imperfect tense, defined, 160. a, 471; use, 470; in descriptions, id. a; w. iam diū etc., id. b; inceptive and conative, id. c; w. iam, id. N.; of surprise, id. d; in dialogue, id. e; could, ētc., id. f; epistolary, 479 and N.; represented by perf. subjv., 485. b. 3; imperf. subjv., sequence, id. g, h, 584. a and N. imperō, constr., 563. Impersonal construction of pass. w. infin. clause, 566. b, 582 and a. Impersonal verbs, synopsis of, 207; classified, 208; passive of intransitives, id. d, 372; impersonals, miseret etc., w. gen., 354, b; libet, licet, w. dat., 368. 1; acc. w. decet etc., 388. c. impertiō, constr., 364. impetrō, constr., 563, 568. ftn. 2. impetus, defect., 103. d. impleō, constr., 409. a. N. implicō, constr., 364. impōnō, constr., 430. īmus, 130. a. N.^2. in-, neg. prefix, 267. d. 1. in-, stem-ending, 61. 2; īn-, 83. a. in, prep., use, 220. c, 221. 12; comp. w. vbs., 267. a; in, w. acc. or abl., 259. e (cf. 430); w. acc., penalty, 353. 2. N.; vbs. comp. with, w. dat., 370; in w. acc., w. adjs., 385. b; in citations, 428. d. N.^2; place where, 426. 3; in idioms of time, 424. e; w. abl. of gerund, 507. Inceptive or Inchoative verbs, 263. 1. Inclination, adjs. of, constr., 384, 385. b. inclutus, compar., 131. a. Incomplete action, tenses of. See Continued action. Indeclinable nouns, gender of, 33; list of, 103. a; adjectives, 122. b. Indefinite antecedent, relative with, w. subjv., 535. a and N.^2. Indefinite pronouns, decl., 148–151. Syntax, 309–315; indefinite relative may introduce conditional clause, 512. N., 519.

.9īn Indefinite subject omitted, 318. b; use of 2d person for, 439. a; in general conditions, 518. a; licet clārum fierī, 455. N. Indefinite value, 417 and a. Indicative mood, 154. b; how used, 157. a, 437; for Eng. subjv., id. a; in apod. of conditions contrary to fact, 517. b, c, 522. a; in causal clauses, 540; in clause with quod, 572; in deliberative questions, 444. a. N. indigeō, w. gen., 356. N. indīgnus, w. abl., 418. b; w. quī and subjv., 535. f. INDIRECT DISCOURSE, origin etc., 577; list of verbs that take ind. disc., 579, ftn.; direct and indir. quotation, 578. Moods in ind. disc., 580; verb of saying implied, id. a. Subj. acc., 580. Subord. clause when explanatory, 583; clauses w. rel. which is equivalent to demonstr., id. b. Tenses of inf. in ind. disc., 584; tenses of subjv., 585; subjv. depending on perf. inf., id. a; pres. and perf. after secondary tense (repraesentātiō), id. b. Conditional sentences in ind. disc., 589; questions, 586; deliberative subjv., 587; commands, 588; prohibition, id. N.^2. Informal ind. disc., 591. 1, 592. Indirect object, 274, 361, 362, 366, 367. Indirect Questions, defined, 330, 331; Syntax, 331. N., 332. b. N., 573–575; fut. tense in, 575. a; deliberative subjv. in, id. b; indic. in (early Lat.), id. c; num in, 332. b. N. Indirect quotation, 578. Indirect reflexive, 300. 2 and b. Indo-European, 14, 18, 19. indūcō, w. names of authors, 497. d. N. induō, double constr. of, 364. ineō, constr., 370. b. ineptus, constr., 505. a. ftn. inermis or -us, 122. a. īnfera, defect., 111. b, cf. p. 56. ftn. 2; compar., 130. b. īnferī, meaning in plur., 130. b. īnferior, comparison, 130. b. Infinitive Clauses, as subj. or obj., 452; w. pass. vbs., 582 and a. See also Indirect Discourse. Cf. also 459. INFINITIVE MOOD, 154. b and ftn.; tenses of, 164. 3. b, 486; how used, 157. d; pass. in -ier, 183. 4; fut. inf. of deponents, 190. c; subject in ace., 397. e. INFINITIVE MOOD, Syntax, 451-463; used as subject, 452; complementary inf., 456; vbs. having subjv. or inf., 457 (cf. 563); inf. for obj. clause, 563. N.; w. subject acc., 459; case of predicate noun, 581 and N.^3; inf. of purpose, 460; w. adjs., in poetry, 461; of result, id. a;

.9īn as pure noun, id. b; in exclamations, 462 (sequence, 482. N.). Historical inf., 463. Tenses of inf., 486; perf. instead of pres., id. d, e; fore ut etc., for fut. inf., 569. a. Inf. in ind. disc., 579; tenses, 584. Infinitive used as noun, gender, 33; w. gen., 343. c. (See also Infinitive Mood, Syntax.) īnfitiās, defect., 103. b. 6; use, 428. i. Inflection, defined, 21; terminations of, id. b; how modified, 28; of decl. and conj., 22. Influence, vbs. of, w. ut-clause, 563. Informal Indirect Discourse, 591, 592. īnfrā, use, 220. a, 221. 13. ingēns, decl., 121. a. 3; compar., 131. b. iniūriā, as abl. of manner, 412. b. iniussū, defect., 94. c. inops, decl., 121. a. 3, b. 1. inquam, inquit, 206. b; position of, 599. c. Inseparable particles, 267. b. Insertion of consonants (p in sūmpsī), 15, 11, 639. īnsidiae, dat. w., 367. d. īnspergō, constr., 364. īnstar, indecl., 103. a; w. gen., 359. b. īnstō, constr., 563. Instrument, abl. of, 409. Instrumental case, 35. N. (cf. 338, 398); as adv., 215. 4; source of several abl. constructions, 408. īnsulam, ad, 428. a. integer, decl., 112. a. Integral part, subjv. of, 591, 593. integrum est ut, 568. Intensive pronoun, 146. N.^7, 8, 298. c-f. Intensive vbs., 263. 2 and b. inter, use, 220. a, 221. 14; in comp., 267. a; vbs. comp. w., 370; position, 435; inter sē (reciprocal), 145. c, 301. f; inter sīcāriōs, 353. 2; inter, w. gerund, 506 and N.^1. interclūdō, constr., 364 and N.^2. interdīcō, constr., 364. N.^1. interest, constr., 355; w. ad, id. b; how to express degree of interest, id. N.^2. interior, compar., 130. a. Interjections, defined, 20; list, 226; w. dat., 379. a. Interlocked order of words, 598. h. Intermediate clauses, Syntax of, 591–593. Interrogative advs., use, 333; position, 598. b. Interrogative particles, list of, 217, d; use, 331–333. Interrogative pronouns, 148–151; use, 333; position, 598. b. Interrogative sentences, 269. b; forms of, 330–336. intrā (interior), 130. a; derivation, 215. 4.

.9īn Intransitive verbs, 273. 2, 274. N.; used impersonally in pass., 208. d; dat. w., 366 ff.; used transitively, w. acc. and dat., 369 (cf. 388. a. N.); w. cognate acc., 390; having passive sense, w. ab, 405. a. -īnus, adj. ending, 249. inutilis, w. dat. of gerund etc., 505. a. invictus, compar., 131. a. invītus, compar., 131. a. -iō, noun ending, 238. b; gend., 86. -iō, vbs. in, conj. III, 176. b. 2; forms of, 179. c, -e; paradigm, 188; conj. IV, 179. d; derivation, 262. iocus, plur. in -ī or -a, 106. b. Ionic measure, 609. c; verse, 626. 16. ip-, stem-ending, 56. a. ipse, formation, 146. N.^7, 8; decl., 146; use, 298. c; used instead of reflexive, 300. b. īrī, in fut. inf. pass., 203. a. Ironical statement not different in form from question, 332. a. N. Irrational measures, 609. e, 623. N. -is-, -iss-, -sis-, dropped in perf., 181. b. N.^2. is, decl., 146; use, 152, 297. d. e; used emphatically, 298. a; used instead of reflexive, 300. b. -ĭs, nom. ending, gend., 86; -is, patronymic, 244. -īs, for -iīs in decl. I, 43. e. N.^2; nom. and -acc. plur., decl. III, 77 (cf. 73); of adjs., 117, 121. c; -Greek nom. ending, 83. b. -īs, nouns in, see īt-. Islands, names of, loc. use, 427. 3, 428. e; from which, 427. 1; to which, id. 2. -isse, -issem, vb. ending, see 181. b. -issō, vbs. ending in, 263. b. iste, shortened to ste, 146. N.^5; decl., 146; use, 297. c. istic, decl., 146. a. It, as sign of Impersonals, 207. ftn. īt- as stem-ending, 58. b; decl., 78, 121. a. 4. ita, correl. with ut, 323. g; in answers, 336. a; ita ut, 537. 2. N.^2. itaque, accent, 12. a; compared with ergō, 324. i; used with ergō, id. k; position of, 599. b. iter, stem of, 79. c. Iterative subjunctive, 518. c. Iterative verbs (-tō, -itō, -sō), 263. 2. -itō, vbs. in, 263. 2. -ītus, adj. ending, 246. iubar, decl., 76. a. 3. iubeō, w. acc., 367. a; w. inf., 563. a; in pass., 566. c. iucundus, constr., 510. N.^2. iūgerum, defect. 103. d. 3; decl., 105. b; measure, 636. -ium, gen. plur., decl. III, 74. a; of adjs. 114. a, -117, 121. b. -ium, noun ending, 241. b. iungō, w. abl. or dat., 368. 3. N., 413. N.

.9īn Iuppiter, stem and decl., 79 and b; plural, 100. a; derivation, 266. c. -ius, adjs. in, gen., voc. of, 110. a; formation of adjs. in, -247, 252. N. iūs (broth), decl., 103. g. 1. -īus, gen. sing. ending, 113; quantity, id. c, 603. -a. Exc. 1. iussū, defect., 94. c, 103. b. 5. iūstō, w. compar., 406. a. iuvat, w. acc., 388. c. iuvenis, decl., 62. N.^3, 78. 1; masc. adj., 122. d; compar., 131. c. iuvō, w. acc., 367. a. iūxtā, position, 435. -īv-, in perf., 211. d. -īvus, verbal adj. ending, 251. N. J (the character), 5 N.^1; Eng. sound, id. Julian Calendar, 630, 631. e. K, supplanted by C, 1. a. N. kalendae, 631. a. Kindred forms, Latin and English, 18, 19. Kindred signification, acc. of, 390. Knowing, vbs. of, w. acc. and inf., 459. Knowledge, adjs. of, w. gen., 349. a. ko-(kā-), primary suffix, 234. II. 12. L, nouns in -1, gend., 87; adj. stems in 1-, 117. a. Labials, 4. 2; stems, decl. III, 56 and a. labōrō, w. abl., 404. a. lacus, decl., 89; dat. and abl. plur. in -ubus, 92. c. laedō, w. acc., 367. a. laetor, laetus, w. abl., 431. lampas, decl., 82. lateō, w. acc., 396. c. latet, w. acc., 388. c. N.^1. lātifundium, 265. 2. lātus, part., derivation, 200. ftn. 2. Learning, vbs. of, w. inf., 456. Length, expressed by gen., 345. b. -lēns, -lentus, adj. endings, 245. leō, decl., 62. Letters, classification of, 1–5. levis, decl., 116; compar., 124. leviter, compar., 218. līber, adj., decl., 50, 111. a. Līber, decl., 50. līberi, noun, 50, 101. 3. libet, impers., 208. c. N.; w. dat., 368. 1. licet, impers., synopsis, 207; use, 208. c. N.; w. dat., 368. 1; w. predicate dat., 455. 1; w. subjv., meaning although, 527. b; licet eam, licet mē īre, licet mihi īre, 565 and N.^2. Likeness, adjs. of, w. dat., 384; w. gen., 385. c. Limiting word, meaning of, 276. b. Linguals, 4. 3; stems in, decl. III, 58. a.

.9īn linter, decl., 66. Liquids, 3, 4; stems in, decl. III, 61–64. -lis, adjs. in, compar., 126. Litotes, 326. c. -lium, noun ending, 241. c. ll-, as stem ending, 62. N.^1. lo- (lā-), primary suffix, 234. II. 10. Locative abl., 426. 3; idiomatic use, 429. 3; adverbial forms, 215. 5. LOCATIVE, defined, 35. h, p. 34. ftn. (cf. 360); in abl., 398, 421; of decl. I, 43. c; decl. II, 49. a; decl. III, 80; decl. IV (domī), 93. N.^1; decl. V, 98. b; as adv., 215. 5; w. abl. in apposition, 282. d; relative adv. used to refer to, 308. g; animī, 358; loc. used to express where, 426. 3; forms (domī etc.), 427. a. locō, abl. without prep., 429. 1. locō, vb., constr., 430. locum capere, w. dat. of gerund etc., 505. locus, plur. -ī or -a, 106. b. Logaœdic Verse, 623–625. Long and Short, see Quantity. longius, without quam, 407. c. lūdicer, decl., 112. a. luēs, defect., 103. d. 1. lūx, decl., 103. g. 2. M, final, elision of, 612. d. N., f; inserted in verb root, 176. c. 2. -m, sign of acc., 338; omitted in inscriptions, 46. N.^1. macer, decl., 112. a. macte virtūte, use and constr., 340. ???c and N. magis, as sign of compar., 128; comps. of, w. quam, 434. māgnī, gen. of value, 417. māgnus, comparison, 129. m aiestātis, w. words of accusing etc., 352. a. Main clause, defined, 278. b. m aior nātū, 131. c. m aiōrēs, signification of, 101. 3 (cf. 102. 2), 291. c. N.???^3. Making, vbs. of, constr., 393. male, compar., 218; compounds of, w. dat., 368. 2. mālō, conj., 199. malus, compar., 129. mandō, constr., 563. māne, defect. noun, 76. N.^1, 103. b. 5. maneō, w. abl., 431. Manner, advs. of, 217. c; abl. of, 412 and b; hard to distinguish from abl. of specification, 418. a. N; manner implied in participle, 496. mānsuētus, 266. c. manus, decl., 89; gend., 90. Exc. mare, decl., 76. a. 3, 78. marī, loc., 427. a.

.9īn mās, decl., 71. 6. Masculine, rule for gender, 31. Masculine adjs., 122. d. Masculine cæsura, 615. c. N. Material, adjectives denoting, 247; gen. of, 344; abl. of, 403 and b, c, d. maximē, as sign of superl., 128. May, how expressed in Latin, 157. b. mē dīus fidius, 397. d. N.^2. Means, nouns denoting, 239; abl. of, 408, 409; participle implying means, 496. Measure, gen. of, 345. b (cf. 425. a). Measures in Prosody, 608–610; names of, 609; contracted or resolved, 610. Measures of value, 632–635; of length, 636; of weight, 637; of capacity, 638. medeor, w. dat. or acc., 367. b. mediocris, decl., 115. a. N.^1. Meditative verbs, 263. 2. b. medius (middle part of), 293. melior, decl., 120. melius est, w. infin. 486. f. meminī, conj., 205; in pres. sense, id. b, 476; imperative of, 449. a; meminī w. acc. or gen., 350. a, b; w. pres. inf., 584. a and N. memor, decl., 121. a. 3. Memory, adjs. of, constr., 349. a; vbs. of, constr., 350. men-, primary suffix, 234. II. 14. -men, -mentum, noun endings, 239. mēnsis, decl., 78. 2. merīdiēs, gend., 97. -met (enclitic), 143. d. Metathesis, 640 (cf. 177. a. N.). Metre, see Prosody. metuō, w. dat. or acc., 367. c; w. subjv., 564. meus, voc. mī, 110. a. N.; syntax of, 302. a, 343. a. Middle voice, 397. c, 410. N. Mile, 636. mīles, decl., 57. Military expressions, dat. in, 382. 2; abl. of means instead of agent, 405. b. N.^1; abl. of accomp. without cum, 413. a. mīlitiae (locative), 427. a. mīlle (mīlia), decl. and constr., 134. d. -minī, as personal ending, p. 76. ftn. 1. minimē, compar., 218. a; use, 291. c. N.^2; w. neg. force, 392. a; in answer (no), 336. a. 2. ministrō, w. infin., 460. a. minor nātū, 131. c. minōris, gen. of value, 417 and c. minōrēs, signification, 291. c. N.^3. -minus, -mnus, verbal adjective endings, 253. c. minus, compar., 218. a; use, 291. c. N.^2; w. sī and quō, not, 329. a; c̄onstr. without quam, 407. c.

.9īn mīror sī, 572. b. N. mīrum quam (quantum), w. indicative, 575. d. mīs, tīs, 143. a. N. misceō, w. abl. or dat., 368. 3. N., 413. a. N. miser, decl., 111; compar., 125. miserē, compar., 218. misereor, w. gen., 354. a. miserēscō, w. gen., 354. a. miseret, 208. b; w. gen. and acc., 354. b, other constr., id. N. miseror, w. acc., 354. a. N. Mixed i-stems, 70–72. -mnus, see -minus. mo- (mā-), primary suffix, 234. II. 7. Modesty, subjunctive of, 447. 1. Modification of subj. or pred., 276. Modifiers, position of, 596–599; of negative, 599. a. modo (modo nē) with subjv. of proviso, 528. modo . . . modo, 323. f. modō as abl. of manner, 412. b. molāris, decl., 76. a. 2. moneō, conj., 185; constr., 351, 390. d. N.^1. -mōnium, -mōnia, noun endings, 239. Monoptotes, 103. b. Monosyllables, quantity, 604. a–c. Months, gend. of names of, 31 and N.; decl. of names of in -ber, 115. a; names of, 630; divisions of in Roman Calendar, 631. Moods, names and uses of, 154, 157; note on origin and nature of, 436; syntax of, 264–275, 437–463. Moods in temporal clauses, how distinguished, 545, 546 and notes. Mora, in Prosody, 608. a. mōrigerus, decl., 111. a. N. mōs est ut, 568. Mother, name of, w. prep., 403. a. N.^1. Motion, how expressed, 363, 381. a, 402; indicated by compounds, 388. b; implied, 428. j. N. Motion, end of, see End of Motion. Motive, how expressed, 404. b. Mountains, names of, gend., 31 and b. Mulciber, decl., 50. c. muliebris, decl., 115. a. N.^1. multā nocte, 293. N. Multiplication by distributives, 137. c. Multiplicatives, 139. multum (-ō), compar., 218. a. multus, compar., 129. mūnus, decl., 105. g; mūnus est ut, 568. mūs, decl., 71. 6. mūsica (-ē), decl., 44. Musical accent, 611. mūtāre, constr., 417. b. Mutes, 4; mute stems, decl. III, 56–64. mȳthos, decl., 52.

.9īn N, 4; as final letter of stem (leōn-), 61. 1; preceding stem vowel of vb., 176. b. 1; inserted in verb root (tangō), 176. c. 2, 177. b. N. nāis, decl., 82. -nam (enclitic), in questions, 333. a. nam, namque, use, 324. h, k. Names of men and women, 108. Naming, vbs. of, w. two accs., 393. Nasals, 4, 6; inserted in verb root, 176. c. 2. nātālis, decl., 76. b. 2. nātū (m aior, minor), 131. c. nātus etc., w. abl. of source, 403. a. nāvis, decl., 76. b. 1. -nd, -nt, vowel short before, 10. e. -ndus, verbal adj. ending, 253. a; gerundive in, 158. d. -ne (enclitic), use in questions, 332. a-c; w. force of nōnne, -332. c; orig. meaning, id. N.^1; in double -questions, 335; in exclamatory questions, 462. a; quantity, -604. a. 1. nē, neg. of hortatory subjv., 439; in prohibitions, 450. 3; in concessions, 527. a; w. subjv. of proviso, 528. b; in final clauses, 531; n̄ēdum, 532. N.^1; in substantive clauses, w. vbs. of hindering, 558. b; of fearing, 564; omitted after cavē, 565. N.^1. nē nōn, w. vbs. of fearing, 564. nē . . . quidem, use, 322. f; after nōn, 327. 1; after nōn modo, 217. e; position of, 599. b. Nearness, adjs. of, w. dat., 384; w. gen., 385. c. nec enim, 324. h. necesse, indecl., 103. N.^1; necesse est ut, 568, 569. 2. N.^2. Necessity, vbs. of, w. perf. pass. inf., 486. d; in apod., 517. c, 522. a; w. ut-clause, 569. 2. necne in double questions, 335 and N. nēdum, 532. N.^1, 2. nefās, indecl., 103. a; w. supine in -ū, 510. Negation, perfect preferred in, 475. a. Negative answers, 332. b, 336 and a. 2. Negative particles, list of, 217. e; use of, 325; two negatives, 326; neg. form different from English, 328; neg. condition, 525. a; neg. proviso, 528; neg. purpose, 531; neg. result, 538, 568; position of, 599. a. negō, better than dīcō . . . nōn, 328, 580. b. negōtium dō ut, 563. ftn. 2. nēmō, use of, 314; gen. and abl. sing, replaced by nūllīus and nūllō, 314. a; nēmō nōn, 326. b; nēmō est quī, 535. a. N.^1. neque (nec), and not, 328. a; neque enim, use, 324. h; neque after a neg., 327. 2, 3. nēquam, indecl., 122. b; compar. of, 129. nequeō, conj., 206. d.

.9īn nēquis, decl., 310. a. nesciō an, 575. d. nesciō quis, as indefinite without subjv., 575. d. -neus, adj. ending, 247. Neuter acc. as adv., 214. d, cf. b. N. Neuter adjs., special uses of, 289. Neuter gender, general rule for, 33; cases alike in, 38. b; endings of decl. III, 87. Neuter pron. as cognate acc., 390. c. Neuter verbs, see Intransitive Verbs. nēve, connective in prohibitions, 450. N.^5. nex, decl., 103. g. 2. ni-, primary suffix, 234. II. 5. nī, nisi, 512. N; use of, 525. a. -nia, -nium, noun endings, 241. c. niger, decl., 112; distinct from āter, 131. d. N. nihil, indecl., 103. a; contr. to nīl, 603. c. nihilī, gen. of value, 417. a. nihilī and nihilō, 103. a. N.^2. nīmīrumquam, as indefinite without subjv., 575. d. ningit, 208. a. nisi and sī nōn, 525. a; nisi sī, id. 3; nisi vērō (forte), id. b. nītor, w. abl., 431. nix (stem and decl.), 79. d; plur., 100. b. No, in answers, how expressed, 336. a. 2. no- (nā-), primary suffix, 234. II. 4. no-, verb suffix, 176. b. 1. nōlī, in prohibitions, 450. (1) and N.^1. nōlō, conj., 199; part. w. dat. of the person judging, 378. N.; w. perf. act. inf. in prohibitions, 486. c.; w. perf. pass. inf. (or part.), id. d and N. Nōmen, denoting gens, 108. nōmen, decl., 64. nōmen est, w. pred. nom. or dat., 373. a; w. gen., id. N. Nominal adjs., 243–254. NOMINATIVE defined, 35. a; nom. suffix, 338; neut. plur. nom. and acc. alike, 38. b; in decl. II, 45. a; in decl. III, 56, 58, 61, 66, 79; of neuters, i-stems, 68. a; in u-stems, decl. IV, 88; in e-stems, decl. V, 95. NOMINATIVE, Syntax (see 338): in predicate, 283, 284; verb-agreement with, 316; as subject, 339; in exclamations, 339. a (cf. 397. d); used for vocative, 340. a; w. opus in predicate, 411. b; nom. of gerund supplied by inf., 502. N. nōn, derivation, 215. 1; compounds of, 326. a, b; in answers, 336. a. 2. nōn dubitō quīn, 558. a; nōn dubitō w. inf., id. N.^2; w. indir. quest., id. N.^1. nōn modo, after a negative, 327. 1. nōn modo ... nē . . . quidem, 217. e. nōn nēmō, nōn nūllus, etc., 326. a. nōn quia (quod, quō, quīn) etc., 540. N.^3.

.9īn nōn satis, 291. c. N.^2. Nones (nōnae), 631. c. nōnne, in questions, 332. b. nōs, decl., 143; for ego, 143. a. noster, for poss. gen., 302. a. nostrī, as objective gen., 143. c, 295. b. nostrum, as partitive gen., 143. b, 295. b; as objective gen., 295. b. N. ^1. Noun and adj. forms of vb., 166. Noun stem, treated as root, 176. d. Nouns defined, 20. a; indecl., gend., 33; decl. of, 37–95; derivative forms of, 235–241; used as adjectives, 321. c; rule of agreement, 281; w. part. gen., 346. a. 1; w. obj. gen., 348; governing acc., 388. d. N.^2; noun as protasis, 521. a. Nouns of agency, 235; formation, 236. novendecim, 133. N.^2. nox, decl., 72. ns, nf, gn, quantity of preceding vowel, 10. d, 603. d. -ns, as adjective ending, 118; participles in, decl., 119, 121. -b. 2; w. gen., 349. b; w. acc., id. N.^1, 2. nt- (ont-, ent-), primary suffix, 234. II. 18. nt-, stems in, decl., 121. a. 4. nu-, primary suffix, 234. II. 6. nūbēs, decl., 72. nūbō, w. dat., 368. 3. nūllus, decl., 113; use, 314. a; cf. nēmō. num, force of, 332. b; in indirect questions, id. N. Number, 35; nouns, defect, in, 99, 100, 101, 103. f, g; variable in, 107; peculiar uses, 101. N.^1, 317. d. N.^2; number in vbs., 154. e; agreement in, 280; w. appositives, 282. a; w. adjs., 286 and b; w. vbs., 316, 317. d. Numeral advs., 138. Numerals, 132–139; cardinals and ordinals, 132, 133; distributives, 136; advs., 138; others, 139. Position of numeral adjs., 598. b. numquis, 149. b, 310. a. nunc, compared w. iam, 322. b. nunc . . . nunc, 323. f. nurus, gend., 90. -nus, adj. ending, 250. O for u after u or v, 6. a, b; in decl. II, 46. N.^1. o- (ā-), primary suffix, 234. I. 1. -ō in nom., 61. 1; gend., 86; in fem. abl. of Greek adjs., 111. -b. N. -ō, -ōnis, noun ending, 236. c, 255. ō sī, w. subjv. of wish, 442. a and N.^1. o-stems, decl. II, 45; in adjs., 111–113; vbs. from o-stems, 259. 2. ob, use, 220. a, 221. 15; in comp., 267. a; in comp. w. vbs., w. dat., 370; to express cause, 404. b; w. gerund, 506 and N.^1.

.9īn obeō, constr., 370. b. Obeying, vbs. of, 367; w. acc., id. a. Object cases, 274. a. Object clauses, ???infin., 452; subjv., 561–568. Object defined, 274; becomes subj. of pass., 275, 387. b; acc. of direct w. dat. of indir. obj., 362; secondary obj., 394; obj. of anticipation, 576. Objective case expressed in Latin by gen., dat., acc., or abl., 274. a. Objective compounds, 265. 3. Objective genitive, meī etc., 143. c; defined, 348. N.; w. nouns, 348; w. adjs., 349. Obligation, unfulfilled, hortatory subjv., 439. b. Oblique cases, 35. g; origin of names of, 338. oblīvīscor, w. acc. or gen., 350. a, b. obvius (obviam), derivation, 216 and N.; obviam as apparent adj., 321. d; w. dat., 370. c. Occasion, expressed by participle, 496. ōcior, compar., 130. octōdecim, 133. N.^2. ōdī, conj., 205; w. meaning of present, 476. -oe, for -ī in nom. plur., decl. II, 52. d. offendō, constr., 370. b. - oius, names in, 49. f. Old forms of pronouns: mīs, tīs, 143. a. N.; mēd, tēd, id. ollus (ille), 146. N.^4. -olus, diminutive ending, 243. Omission, of possessive, 302. c; of antecedent, 307. c. omnēs; nōs omnēs (instead of omnēs nostrum), 346. e. ŏn-, stem-ending, 83. c. -ŏn, Greek ending, decl. II, 52. ōn-, stem-ending, 61. 1, 234. II. 13. -ōn, gen. plur., decl. II, 52. c. -ōn, nom. ending, 83. c, d. ont-, nom. -ōn, 83. d. Open syllables, 7. N.^2. operā, w. gen., 405. b. operam dō, w. dat. of gerund etc., 505; w. subjv., 563. Operations of nature, 208. a. opīniōne, w. compar., 406. a. opīnor, position of, 599. c. oportet, 208. c; w. acc., 388. c; in apod., 517. c; imperfect refers to present, plupf. to past, 522. a. N.^1; w. subjv. or inf., 565 and N.^3. oportuit, w. pres. inf., 486. a; w. perf. inf., id. b. oppidum, ad, 428. b. oppūgnō, w. acc., 370. b. ops, defect., 103. f. 1. Optative, derivation, and comparison w. subjv., 436.

.9īn Optative forms in the vb., 168. e. N.^2, 169. d. Optative subjv. (wish), 441; w. utinam etc., 442; velim etc. w. subjv., equiv. to, id. b. optimātēs, 71. 5, 101. 3. opus, indecl., 103. a; opus and ūsus, w. abl., 411; as pred. nom., id. b; w. participle, 497. a; w. supine in -ū, 510. or-, stem-ending, decl. III, 63. Exc. 2. -or, noun ending, 238. a. -or or -ōs, nom. ending, 62. N.^2; gend., 85. Ōrātiō oblīqua, see Indirect Discourse. Order of words, 595–601. Ordinal Numbers, 132–135; decl., 134. e; use of et with, 135. a, b. ōrō, constr., 563. Orpheus, decl., 52. e. os-, stem of comparatives, 120. b. -os for -us, in nom. sing., decl. II, 46. N.^1; as Greek -ending, 52; as gen. ending in Greek nouns, decl. III, 81. 1. os, ossis, stem, 79. -ōs, nom. ending, 62. N.^2; gend., 85. ōs, ōris, decl., 103. g. 2. -ōsus, -lēns, -lentus, adj. endings, 245. ovat (defective), 206. f. ovis, decl., 76. b. 1. P, parasitic after m (sūmpsī), 15. 11. pactō, as abl. of manner, 412. b. paene, in apod., 517. b. N.^2. paenitet, 208. b; constr., 354. b, c. Paeon, 609. d. palam, as apparent adj., 321. d; w. abl., 432. c. Palatals, 4. palūster, decl., 115. a. Panthūs, vocative of, 52. b. pār, decl., 119, 121. a. 3; w. gen., 385. c; w. dat. of gerund etc., 505. ftn. 2. Parallel verb forms, 189. Parataxis, 268. parātus, w. infin., 460. b. Pardoning, vbs. of, w. dat., 367. Parisyllabic nouns of decl. III, 65. a. pariter, use, 384. N.^2. parte, locative use, without prep., 429. 1. partem, adverbial use, 397. a. particeps, decl., 121. a. 4, b. PARTICIPLES, defined, 20. b. N.^1; comparison of, 124. a; number of, 155. a; how used, 158. PARTICIPLES, Syntax, 488–500; agreement, 286 and N.; clause equivalent to part., 308. c; parts. in -ns, used as adjs., w. gen., 349. b; parts. in abl. absolute, 419; meaning and form, 488; tenses, 489–493; present in special use, 490; pres. pass. part., how supplied, 492; perf. act., how supplied, 493; parts. of

.9īn deponent vbs., 190. a, b, 491, 493; adjective use, 494; as nouns, id. a; predicate use, 495, 496; w. opus, 497. a; perf. w. habeō, id. b; present w. faciō, id. c; future part., 498; w. past tenses of esse, 498. b; poetic and late use, 499; gerundive, use as part. or adj., 500; part. as protasis, 521. a. Particles defined, 23; forms and classification, 213; note on formation, 215, 216; interrogative, 217. d; negative, id. e, 325; in comps., 267. Syntax, 321–336; use of interrogative particles, 332. a–c; conditional particles, 512. a and N., 525; particles of comparison, 524. Particular conditions defined, 513. partior, conj., 190. Partitive apposition, 282. a. Partitive genitive, 346; nostrum etc., 143. b; neut. adjs. with, 346. 3 and N.^1. Partitive numerals, 139. c. Parts of Speech, 20. partus, decl., 92. c. parum, compar., 218. a; meaning, 291. c. N.^2. parvī, gen. of value, 417. parvus, compar., 129. Passive voice, 154. a; origin, 163. ftn. 2, 208. d. N., signification, 156; reflexive meaning, id. a; deponents, 156. b; completed tenses, how formed, 179. g; passive used impersonally, 203. a. 208. d, 372 (cf. 566, 582. a). pater familiās, decl., 43. b. patiēns, compar., 124. a. patior, constr., 563. c. Patrials in -ās, decl., 71. 5, 121. a. 4. Patronymics (-ades, -īdes, -eus, etc.), 244. pauper, decl., 121. a. 4. pāx, decl., 103. g. 2. pecū, gend., 91; decl., 105. f. pecūniae, gen., w. vbs. of accusing, 352. a and N. pedester, decl., 115. a. pelagus (plur. pelagē), gend. of, 48. a. pelvis, decl., 76. b. 1. Penalty, gen. of, 352 and N.; abl. of, 353. 2. Penātēs, decl., 71. 5 (cf. 101. 3). penes, following noun, 435. Pentameter verse, 616. Penult, defined, 12. penus, gend., 90. Exc.; decl., 105. c. per, prep., 220. a; use, 221. 16; w. acc. of agent, 405. b. Adverbial prefix, w. adjs., 267. d. 1 (cf. 291. c. N.^1); w. vbs., 267. d. N. Perceiving, vbs. of, constr., 459. perendiē (loc.), 98. b, 215. 5. Perfect participle, two uses, 158. c. 1, 2; of deponents, 190. b; used as noun,

.9īn retains adv., 321. b; dat. of agent w., 375; abl. w. opus and ūsus, 411. a, 497. a. PERFECT TENSE distinguished from imperf., 161, 471; perf. def. and perf. hist., 161, 473; personal endings, 163. a, 169. a; origin of i and sin, 163. ftn. 3; stem, how formed, 177, 179; perf. subjv., suffixes of, 169. d; of conj. I, 179. a. 2; contracted perf., 181. a, b; perf. subjv. in -sim, 183. 3; irreg. forms of conj. I, 209. a; of conj. II, 210. c; various, of conj. III, 211; of conj. IV, 212. PERFECT TENSE, Syntax. Perf. Ind., use, 473; in general conditions, id. a, 518. b; gnomic perf., 475; in fut. conditions, 516. e. Perf. Subjv., hortatory, 439 and N.^1; optative, 441. a; potential, 446; in prohibitions, 450 (3); in fut. conditions, 516. c. Perf. Inf., in exclamations, 462 and N.^2; w. dēbeō etc., 486. b; w. nōlō or volō in prohibition, id. c; pass. w. volō etc., id. d; instead of the pres. inf., id. e; w. vbs. of feeling etc., id. f; in ind. disc., 584. a and N. Sequence of Tenses, perf. ind., 485. a; perf. subjv., id. b, c, 585. a. Periclēs, decl., 82. Period, 600, 601. Periphrastic conjugations, 158. b. N., d. N.; paradigms, 195, 196; periphrastic forms in conjugation, 193; use in contrary to fact apodosis, 517. d; in ind. questions, 575. a. Permission, vbs. of, constr., 563. c. permūtō, w. abl., 417. b. pernox, decl., 122. c. perpes, decl., 121. a. 3. Person, 154. d; agreement, 280; of vbs., 316 and a; w. different persons, 317. a; order of the three persons, id. Personal constr. of passive w. infinitive, 582. Personal endings, 163 and ftn. 1. Personal pronouns, 142, 143, 294, 295; reduplicated forms, 143. e; Syntax, 295; omitted, id. a, 318. a; gen. plur., 295. b; 3d pers., id. c; position of personal and demonstrative, 599. f. persuādeō, constr., 563. Persuading, vbs. of, w. dat., 367. pertaesum est, 354. b. pēs, comps. of, decl., 121. b. 1. Pet names, gend., 30. a. N.^2. petō w. ab, 396. a; w. subjv., 563. ph only in Greek words, 4. 1. ftn. 2; sound of, 8. Phalæcian verse, 625. 11. Pherecratic verse, 623. 2, 624, 625. 2, 4, 12. Phonetic variations, 14–19; phonetic decay, id.; vowels, 15, 17; consonants, 15. 4–17.

.9īn Phrase, defined, 277. Phrases, neut., 33; phrases and clauses grown into advs., 216; adverbial phrases, 277; phrases limited by gen., 343. c; phrase or clause in abl. abs., 419. b. Physical qualities, abl., 415. a. piger, decl., 112. a. piget, constr., 354. b. Pity, vbs. of, constr., 354. a. pius, compar., 128. N., 131. a. pix, decl., 103. g. 2. Place, advs. of, 217. a; relations of, require prep., 381. a, 426; place of birth, abl., 403. a. N.^2; place where, 426. 3, 427. 3; place to or from which, 426. 1, 2; prep., when omitted, 426. ftn., 427. 1, 2. a, 429. a; locative case, 427. 3. a, 428. k. Placing, vbs. of, constr., 430. Plants, gend. of names of, 32 and b; decl. of plant names in -us, 105. a. plaudō, w. dat., 368. 3. Plautus, absque mē etc., 517. f; use of quom w. indic., 546. N.^4, 549. N.^3; prosodial forms, 620. a, 628. b, 629. Pleasing, vbs. of, constr., 367. plēbēs, decl., 98. d. Plenty, vbs. of, constr., 356, 409. a. plēnus, constr., 409. N. -plex, numeral adjs. in, 139. pluit (impers.), 208. a; used personally, id. N. Pluperfect Indicative, suffixes of, 169. b; use of, 477; epistolary, 479; pluperf. indic. in conditions cont. to fact, 517. b; in general conditions, 518. b. Pluperf. Subjv., suffixes of, 169. e; hortatory, 439. b; optative, 441; potential, 446; in conditions, 517 (sequence, 485. g). Plural, wanting in decl. V, 98. a; used in sense different from sing., 100. a–c, 107; plur. alone used, 101. N.^1; plur. acc. used as advs., 215. 3; neut. plur. of adjs., 289. b. Plūrālia tantum, 101. plūris, gen. of value, 417 and c. plūs, decl., 120 and c; compar., 129; without quam, 407. c. poēma, decl., 60. a. poenitet, see paenitet. pondō, defect., 103. b. 5. pōnō, w. abl., 430. por-, prefix, 267. b. porticus, gend., 90. Exc. portus, decl., 92. c. Position, expressed by ab, ex, 429. b. Position in Prosody, 11. b, 603. f; does not affect final vowel, 603. f. N.^1. posse, as fut. inf., 584. b. Possession, how expressed, 302. a; dat. of, 373; compared w. gen., id. N.

.9īn Possessive compounds, 265. a. Possessive genitive, 343 and a–c; dat. of reference used instead, 377. Possessive pronouns, 145; agreement, 302; instead of gen., id. a; special meanings, id. b; omission, id. c; used substantively, id. d; w. gen. in app., id. e; used for gen., 343. a; for obj. gen., 348. a. Possibility, vbs. of, in apodosis, 517. c. possum, in apodosis, 517. c. post, adverbial use of, 433. 1; with quam, 434. post, vbs. comp. w., with dat., 370. postera, defect., 111. b; compar., 130. b; posterī, id. posterior, 130. b. Postpositive conjunctions, 324. j. postquam (posteāquam), in temporal clauses, 543. postrēmō, in enumerations, 322. d. N. postrīdiē, w. gen., 359. b; w. acc., 432. a; w. quam, 434. postulō ab, 396. a; postulō ut, 563. Potential mood, how expressed in Latin, 157. b. Potential subjunctive, 445–447. potior (adj.), compar., 130. potior (verb), w. gen., 357. a, 410. a; w. abl., 410; w. acc., id. N.^1; gerundive, 503. N.^2. potis, pote, 122. b. potius, compar., 218. a. potuī, w. pres. infin., 486. a. Practice, vbs. of, 263. b. prae, 220. b; use, 221. 17; in comp., 291. c. N.^1; in comps., w. dat., 370; in compar., w. quam, 434; quantity of, in comps., 603. b. Exc. praecēdō, constr., 370. praeceps, decl., 119, 121. a. 3. praecipiō, constr., 563. Praenōmen, 108; abbreviations, id. c. praepes, decl., 121. b. 1. praestōlor, constr., 367. b. praesum, w. dat. of gerund etc., 505. praeter, use, 220. a, 221. 18. praeterit, w. acc., 388. c. precī, defect., 103. f. 2. precor, constr., 563. Predicate, defined, 270; modified, 276; pred. noun or adj., 272, 283; case, 284; pred. noun referring to two or more sing. nouns, id. a; adjective, 285. 2, 286. a; agreement in, 287. 1–3; in rel. clause, 306; pred. adj. in neut. plur., 287. 4. a; pred. adj. in relative clause, 307. f; pred. gen., 343. b, c; pred. acc., 392, 393; adj. as pred. acc., id. N.; pred. acc. becomes pred. nom. in the pass., id. a; predicate use of participles, 496.

.9īn Predicate noun or adj. after inf., 452. N.^2, 455. a and N., 458. 581. N.^3. Prepositions, assimilation of, 16; defined, 20. f; derivation of, 219; list of preps. w. acc., 220. a; w. abl., id. b; w. either, id. c; idiomatic uses, 221; comp. w. vbs. and adjs., 267. a, c; noun w. prep., instead of obj. gen., 348. c; in comp. w. vbs., w. dat., 370, 381; acc. in comp., 395; w. abl. of separation, 401; prep. omitted in relations of place, 427. 1, 2, 429 and a; use of, 220, 221, 429. b, 430, 432–435; preps. following the noun, 435; usual position of, 599. d. (See 338.) Present participle, decl., 119; use, 158. a. Present stem, how formed, 168, 174; from root, 176. Present subjunctive in -im, 183. 2. Present tense, w. iam diū etc., 466; conative, 467; for fut., 468; historical, 469; annalistic, id. a; w. dum, 556; in quotations, 465. a; sequence, 483, 485. e, i; pres. inf. w. potuī etc., 486. a; participle, 489, 490, 492, 494, 496. Pres. inf. in ind. disc. referring to past time, 584. a and N. Preteritive verbs, 205. N.^2, 476. Preventing, vbs. of, constr., 364. N.^2. Price, abl. or gen., 416. prīdiē, form, 98. b; w. gen., 359. b; w. acc., 432. a; w. quam, 434. Primary suffixes, defined, 233. Primary tenses, 482. 1, 483. prīmipīlāris, decl., 76. a. 2. Primitive verbs, 256. prīmō, prīmum, meanings, 322. d and N. prīmōris, defect., 122. c. prīmus, form, 130. ftn. 2. prīnceps, decl., 121. a. 4. Principal parts of verb, 172, 173. prior, compar., 130. a. prius, w. quam, 434; priusquam in temporal clause, 550, 551; in ind. disc., 585. b. N. Privation expressed by abl., 400. prō, 220. b; use, 221. 19; in comps., w. dat., 370; to express for, 379. N. probō, w. dat., 368, 375. b. N. Proceleusmatic, 609. N. procērus, decl., 111. a. N. procul, w. abl., 432. c. prohibeō, constr. of, 364. N.^2. Prohibitions, 450; in ind. disc., 588. N.^2. Promising etc., vbs. of, 580. c. Pronominal roots, 228, 232; as primary suffixes, id. PRONOUNS defined, 20. c; decl. of, 140–151; personal, 142, 143; reflexive, 144; gen., how used, 143. c, 302. a; demonstrative, 146; relative, 147; interrog. and indef., 148–151; pron. contained in verb ending, 163. ftn. 1, 271. a.

.9īn PRONOUNS, Syntax, 294–315; Personal, 295; Demonstrative, 296–298; īdem, 298. a, b; ipse, id. c–f; Reflexive, 299; Possessive, 302; Relative, 303–308; Indefinite, 309–314. Prons. w. part. gen., 346. a. 1. Relative in protasis, 519. Position of prons., 598. e, l. Pronunciation, Roman method, 8; English method, 8. N. prōnūntiō, constr., 563. prope, compar., 130; use, 220. a; in apod., 517. b. N.^2. prope est ut, 568. Proper names, 108; plur., 99. 1, 101. 1. Proper nouns, 20. a. properus, decl., 111. a. N. propinquus, w. gen., 385. c. propior (propius), compar., 130. a; constr., 432. a and N. Proportional numerals, 139. a. Propriety, vbs. of, in apod., 517. c, 522. a. proprius, w. gen., 385. c. propter, use, 220. a, 221. 20; position, 435; denoting motive, 404. b. PROSODY, 602; rules and definitions, 603–606; early peculiarities, 629. prosper(-us), decl., 111. a. prōspiciō, w. dat. or acc., 367. c. Protasis (see Conditional Sentences), 512 ff.; loose use of tenses in Eng., 514. C. N.; relative in prot., 519; temporal particles in, 542; antequam, priusquam, in, 551. c. N.^2; prot. in ind. disc., 589. 1. Protecting, vbs. of, constr., 364. N.^2. Protraction of long syllables, 608. c. prōvideō, w. dat. or acc., 367. c. Proviso, subjv. used in, 528. a and b; introduced by modo etc., 528; hortatory subjv. expressing, id. a; subjv. w. ut (or nē), id. b; characteristic clause expressing, 535. d. proximē, constr., 432. a. proximus, constr., 432. a. -pse, -pte (enclitic), 143. d. N., 145. a, -146. N.^7, 8. pūbēs, decl., 105. e, 121. d. pudet, 208. b; constr., 354. b, c, and N. puer, decl. 47 (cf. 50. a). pulcher, decl., 112. a. Punishment, abl. of, 353. 1. puppis, decl., 75. b, 76. b. 1. Purpose, dat. of, 382; infin. of, 460; expressed by gerundive after certain vbs., 500. 4; by gerund or gerundive as predicate gen., 504. a. N.^1; ways of expressing, 533. Clauses of, 279. d; defined and classified, 529 ff.; use of quō in, 531. a; main clause omitted, 532; nēdum, id., N.^1, 2. Substantive clauses of, used after certain vbs., 563; of wishing, id. b; of permitting, id. c; of

.9īn determining, id. d; of caution etc., id. e; of fearing, 564. Purpose or end, dat. of, 382. puter, decl., 115. a. quā . . . quā, 323. f. quadrupēs, decl., 121. b. 1. quae res (or id quod), 307. d. quaerō, constr. (ex or dē), 396. a; w. subjv., 563. quaesō, conj., 206. e. quālis, 151. i. Qualities (abstract), gend., 32. Qualities of an object compared, 292. Quality, adjs. of, 251; gen. of, 345, 415. a; to denote indef. value, 417 and a; abl. of, 415 (cf. 345. N.). quam, derivation of, 215. 2; with superlative, 291. c; w. compar. and positive or w. two positives, 292. a. N.; correlative w. tam, 323. g; w. compar., 407. a, e; after alius, id. a; w. compar., of advs., 434; w. ante, post, id.; w. subjv. after compar., 535. c; followed by result clause, 571. a; in indirect questions, 575. d; in ind. disc., 581. N.^2, 583. c. quam diū, 555. N.^2. quam ob causam, 398. quam quī, quam ut, w. subjv., 535. c. quam sī, 524. quamquam, use, 527. d; introducing a proposition and yet, īd. N.; w. subjv., id. e. quamvīs, use, 527. a; subjv. or. ind. w., 440. N., 527. a, e. quandō (interrog.), derivation and meaning, 215. 6, 539; causal (since), 540. a and N.; indef., id.; temporal, 542. quantī, gen. of price, 417. Quantity, gen. of adjs. of, denoting price, 417. Quantity in Prosody, marks of, 10. e; nature of, 602; general rules of, 9–11, 603; final syllables, 604; perf. and perf. parts., 605; derivatives, 606. quantō, w. tantō, 414. a. quantum (with mīrum), in indirect questions, 575. d. quantus, 151. i. quasi, with primary tenses, 524. N.^2. quassō (intensive), 263. 2. -que (enclitic), added to indefinites, 151. g; as conj., use, -323. c. 3, 324. a; quantity, 604. a. 1. queō (defective), 206. d. quēs, old nom. plur., 150. c. Questions, direct, in indic., 157. a, 330–335; indirect, 330. 2, 331. N.; double questions, 334; question and answer, 336; result clause in exclam. questions,

.9īn 462. a; mood in indir. question, 574; in ind. disc., 586; in informal ind. disc., 592. 1. quī (adverbial), 150. b. quī (relative), decl., 147; (interrog. and indef.), 148 and b; in compounds, 151; quī ūt is, w. subjv., 531. 2. N., 537. 2; quī causal and concessive, 535. e. quia, derivation etc., 539; use, 540. N.^1; causal, id.; w. vbs. of feeling, 572. b; in intermediate clauses, 592. 3. quīcum, 150. b. quīcumque, decl., 151. a. quid, in exclamations, 397. d. N.^1. quīdam, decl., 151. c; meaning of, 310; w. ex, 346. c. quidem, use, 322. e; w. is or īdem, 298. a; position of, 599. b. quīlibet, decl., 151. c; use, 312. quīn, w. indic. equiv. to command, 449. b; in result clause (q̄uī nōn), 558, 559; w. vbs. of hindering, 558; nōn dubitō quīn, 558. a. Quinary or hemiolic measures, 609. d. quīnquātrūs, gender, 90; plural only, 101. 2. quippe, w. relative clause, 535. e. N.^1; w. cum, 549. N.^1. Quirītēs, 101. 3. quis, decl., 148, 149; distinguished from quī in use, id. b and N.; compounds of (aliquis etc.), 151. d-f, 310 and b; quis w. sī, num, nē, 310. a; indef. use of, 310. quis est quī, 535. a. quīs, dat. or abl. plur., 150. c. quisnam, 148. e. quispiam, 151. d; use of, 310 and b. quisquam, decl., 151. d; use, 311, 312. quisque, form and decl., 151. g; use in general assertions, 313; in dependent clause, id. a; w. superlative, id. b; w. plur. vb., 317. e. quisquis, decl., 151. b. quīvīs, decl., 151. c; use, 312. quo-, stems in, 46. N.^2. quō, approaching abl. of cause, 414. a. N. quō in final clauses ( ūt eō) w. subjv., 531. a; nōn quō, 540. N.^3. quō . . . eō, 414. a; to denote deg. of difference, id. quoad (intention etc.), 553; (fact), 554; (as long as), 555. quod for id quod, 307. d. N. quod (conj.), 540. N.^1; mood with, 540; in ind. disc., id. b; subst. clause with, 572; as acc. of specification, id. a; w. vbs. of feeling, id. b; quod in intermediate clauses, 592. 3 and N. quod sciam (proviso), 535. d. quod sī, use, 324. d, 397. a. quom (see cum), 6. b, 539. N.

.9īn quōminus ( ūt eō minus), w. vbs. of hindering, 558. b. quoniam, origin, 539; meaning and use, 540. 1. N.^1 and a. quoque, use, 322. a; position, 599. b. quot, indeclinable, 122. b; correl., 152. Quotation, forms of, w. apud and in, 428. d. N.^2; direct and indir., 578. quotus quisque, 313. b. N.^2. quu- (cu-), 6. b. quum (conj.), 6. b (see cum). R substituted for s between two vowels, 15. 4 and N.; r- in adj. stems, 117. a; rr- in noun stems, 62. N.^1. rādīx, decl., 57. rāstrum, plur. in -a and -ī, 106. b. ratiōne, as abl. of manner, 412. b. ratus, as pres. part., 491. rāvis, decl., 75. a. 2. re- or red- (prefix), 267. b. reāpse, 146. N.^7. Receiving, vbs. of, w. gerundive, 500. 4. Reciprocal (each other), how expressed, 145. c, 301. f. recordor, w. acc., 350. d; w. gen., id. N.; w. dē, id. N. rēctum est ut, 568. red-, see re-. Reduplication, 177. c, 231. c; list of vbs., 211. b; lost in fidī etc., id. f. ftn. 3; rule for quantity, 605. a. Reference, object of, 349. Reference, pronouns of, 297. f; commonly omitted, id. N; dative of, 376; gen. of specification, 349. d. rēfert, w. gen. or possessive adj., 355 and a; other constr., id. b. Reflexive pronouns, 144; Syntax of, 298. c. N.^2, 299–301; of 1st and 2d persons, 299. a. Reflexive verbs (deponent or passive), 190. e, 208. d. N.; use of passive, 156. a; w. object acc., 397. c. Refusing, vbs. of, w. quōminus, 558. b. Regular verbs, 171–189. Relationship, nouns of, 244. Relative adverbs, used correlatively, 152; demon. for rel., 308. b; used to connect independent sentences, id. f; referring to loc., id. g; p̄ronoun w. prep., 321. a; used in relative clauses of purpose, 531. 2; result, 537. 2. Relative clauses, defined, 279. a; w. rel. advs., 308. i; conditional, 519; final, 531, 533; characteristic, 535; consecutive, 537; causal, 540. c; temporal, 541, 542; rel. clauses in ind. disc., 591; position of rel. clause, 599. e. Relative pronouns, decl., 147; forms, how distinguished from interrogative and

.9īn indef., 148. b and N.; comps. of, 151, 310 and a, b. Syntax, 303–308; rules of agreement, 305, 306; w. two antecedents, 305. a; rel. in agreement w. app. etc., 306; use of the antecedent, 307; special uses of rel., 308; never omitted in Lat., id. a; relatives as connectives, id. f; pers. of vb. agreeing w., 316. a; abl. of rel. after compar., 407. a. N.^3; position, 599. e. relinquitur ut, 568. reliquum est ut, 568. reliquus, use, 293; reliquī, use, 315. -rem, verb ending, 168. f. Remembering, vbs. of, w. acc. or gen., 350; w. inf., 456. Reminding, vbs. of, constr., 351. reminīscor, w. acc. or gen., 350. c. Removing, vbs. of, w. abl., 401. Repeated action as general condition, 518. c. repetundārum, 352. a. Repraesentātiō, 469. N.; in ind. disc., 583. b and N. requiēs, decl., 98. d, 105. e. rēs, decl., 96. Resisting, vbs. of, constr., 367, 558. Resolution of syllables in Prosody, 610. Resolving, vbs. of, constr. (subjv. or inf.), 563. d. restat, w. ut, 569. 2. restis, decl., 75. b. Restriction in subjunctive clause, 535. d. Result, clauses of, 279. e, 534; sequence of tenses in, 485. c; inf. of, 461. a. Subjunctive w. relatives or ut, 537; negative result w. ut nōn etc., id. a, 538; result clause equivalent to proviso, 537. b; w. quīn, 558; w. quōminus, id. b. Subst. clauses of result after faciō etc., 568; as subject, 569; in app. w. noun, 570; as pred. nom., 571; after quam, id. a; tantum abest ut, id. b; thought as result, id. c. Result, nouns denoting, 239. rēte, decl., 76. a. 3. rēx, decl., 57. Rhetorical questions in ind. disc., 586. Rhotacism, 15. 4. Rhythm, development of, 607; nature of, 608. Rhythmical reading, 612. d. N. ri-, adj. stems in, 115. a. rītū, abl. of manner, 412. b. rīvālis, decl., 76. b. 2. Rivers, gender of names of, 31. 1 and a. ro- (rā-), primary suffix, 234. II. 9. ro-stems, decl. II, 45. b; adj. stems, 111, 112. rogō, constr. of, 396 and b. N., c. N.^2; w. subjv., 563.

.9īn Roman method of pronunciation, 8. Root, defined, 25, 228; consciousness of roots lost in Lat., 25. N.; of vbs., 117. 1; noun stem treated as root, 176. d; roots ending in vowel, id. e; root used as stem, id. d. N.^1 and e, 231. rōs, decl., 103. g. 2. rr-, as stem ending, 62. N.^1. rt-, stems in, decl., 121. a. 4. ruber, decl., 112. a. rūrī, locative, 80, 427. 3. rūs, decl., 103. g. 1; constr., 427. 1, 2, 3. S changed to r, 15. 4 and N., 62. N.^2; substituted for d or t, 15. 5; s- as stem ending, 79. e; of adjs., 119. N.; of compars., 120. b; of perf. stem, 177. b; list of vbs. of conj. III, w. perf. in s, 211. a; s suppressed in verb forms, 181. b. N.^2; in early Lat., 629. a. -s as sign of nom., 45, 46, 56, 95, 117. a, 338; -s omitted in -inscriptions, 46. N.^1; -s, noun ending, decl. III, gend., -86. sacer, decl., 112. a; comp., 131. a. saepe, compar., 218. a. sāl, decl., 103. g. 2. Salamis, decl., 83. a. salūber, decl., 115. a. salūtem, 397. d. N.^2. salvē, defect., 206. g. sānē quam, 575. d. Sanskrit forms, see 25. ftn. 2, 170. b. N. sapiēns, decl., 76. b. 2. Sapphic verse, 625. 7, 8. satiās, decl., 98. d. satis, compar., 218. a; compounds of, w. dat., 368. 2; nōn satis, 291. c. N.^2; satis est (satis habeō), w. perf. infin., 486. f. satur, genitive of, 50. b; decl., 111. a; compar., 131. b. Saturnian verse, 628. d. Saying, vbs. of, constr., 459; in passive, 582. sc preceding stem-vowel of verb, 176. b. 1. scaber, decl., 112. a. Scanning, 612. d, 609. e. N. scīlicet, derivation, 216. N. scīn, contracted form for scīsne, 13. N. sciō, imperative of, 449. a. Scīpiadēs, 44. b. N. scīscō, constr., 563. scītō, scītōte, imv. forms, 182. a, 449. a. -scō (inceptive), vbs. ending in, 263. 1. sē- or sēd-, inseparable prefix, 267. b. sē, reflexive, decl., 144. b; use, 299–301; inter sē, 145. c. Second Conjugation, prin. parts, 173; pres. stem, how formed, 176. a; formation of, 179. b; paradigm, 185; vbs. of, 210; from noun stems, 260.

.9īn Second Declension, nouns, 45–47; accent of gen. and voc. of nouns in -ius, 12. Exc. 2. Secondary object, 394. Secondary suffixes, defined, 232. Secondary tenses, 482. 2; rule for use of, 483; perf. def. more commonly secondary, 485. a; perf. subjv. in clauses of result used after, id. c; hist. pres., id. e; imperf. and pluperf. subjv., id. g, h; present used as if secondary, by synesis, id. i. secundum, prep., 220. a; use, 221. 21. secundus, derivation, 132. ftn. secūris, decl., 75. b, 76. a. 1. secus (adv.), compar., 218. a. secus, indecl. noun, 103. a; use, 397. a. secūtus (as pres. part.), 491. sed-, see sē-. sed compared with vērum etc., 324. d. sēdēs, decl., 78. 1. sedīle, decl., 69. Selling, vbs. of, 417. c. sēmentis, decl., 75. b, 76. b. 1. Semi-deponents, 192. sēminecī, defect., 122. c. Semi-vowels, i and v (u), 5. senātī, senātuos, forms of gen. in decl. IV, 92. a, e. senex, decl., 79 and c; adj. masc., 122. d; comparison, 131. c. Sentence, development, 268; defined, 269; simple or compound, 278; incomplete, 318, 319. Separation, dat. of, after comps. of ab, dē, ex, and a few of ad, 381; abl. of, 400; gen. for abl., 356. N., 357. b. 3. Sequence of tenses, 482–485; in ind. disc., 585; in conditional sentences in ind. disc., 589. b. sequester, decl., 105. b. sequitur, w. ut, 569. 2. sequor, conj., 190. sērā nocte, 293. N. seriēs, decl., 98. a. Service, adjs. of, w. dat., 384. Service, dat. of, 382. N.^1. Serving, vbs. of, w. dat., 367. servus (servos), decl., 46. sēstertium, sēstertius, 632–634; how written in cipher, 635. seu (sīve), 324. f, 525. c. Sharing, adjs. of, w. gen., 349. a. Should (auxiliary), how expressed in Lat., 157. b. ftn. 2. Showing, vbs. of, w. two accs., 393. sī, 511; w. subjv. of wish, 442. a and N.^1; sī and its compounds, use, 512. a. N., 525; sī nōn distinguished from nisi, id. a. 1; mīror sī, 572. b. N.; sī ̄ whether, 576. a.

.9īn Sibilants, 4. sīc, correl., w. ut, 323. g, 537. 2. N.^2; w. sī, 512. b. siem (sim), 170. b. N. Significant endings, 235–253. Signs of mood and tense, 169. ftn. silentiō, without preposition, 412. b. -silis, adj. ending, 252. silvester, decl., 115. a. -sim, old form of perf. subjv., 183. 3. similis, comparison, 126; w. gen. and dat., 385. c. 2. similiter, use, 384. N.^2. Simoīs, decl., 82. Simple sentences, 278. 1. simul, simul atque (ac), 543. simul . . . simul, 323. f. simul w. abl., 432. c. sīn, 512. a. N. Singular, nouns defect. in, 103. f. Singulāria tantum, 99. sinister, decl., 112. a. sinō, constr., 563. c. -siō, noun ending, 238. b. -sis-, dropped in perf., 181. b. N.^2. sitis, decl., 67 (cf. 75. a. 2). sīve (seu) . . . sīve, use, 324. f, 525. c. Smell, vbs. of, w. acc., 390. a. -sō, old form of fut. perfect, 183. 3. -sō, vbs. in, 263. 2. socrus, gend., 90. Exc. sōdēs (sī audēs), 13. N., 192. a. sōl, decl., 103. g. 2. soleō, semi-dep., 192. solitō, w. compars., 406. a. solitus, as pres. part., 491. sōlus, decl., 113; w. relative clause of characteristic, 535. b. Sonants, 3. sōns, as participle of esse, 170. b. -sor, see -tor. Sōracte, decl., 76. b. N.^2. sordem, defect., 103. f. 3. -sōria, noun ending, 254. 4; -sōrium, noun ending, 254. 5; -sōrius, -adj. ending, 250. a. Sōspita, fem. adj. form, 121. e. Sounds, see Pronunciation. Source, expressed by abl., 403. Space, extent of, expressed by acc., 425. Sparing, vbs. of, with dat., 367. spē, w. compars., 406. a. Special verb forms, 181, 182. speciēs, decl., 98. a. Specification, gen. of, w. adjs., 349. d; acc. of, 397. b and N.; abl. of, 418. specus, gend., 90. Exc. Spelling, variations of, 6. spēs, 98. a and ftn. Spirants, 4. Spondaic verse, 615. b.

.9īn Spondee, 609. b. 3. spontis, -e, defect., 103. c. 2. Stanza or Strophe, 614. statuō, w. vbs. of placing, 430; w. inf. or subjv., 563. d. Statutes, fut. imv. in, 449. 2. ste for iste etc., 146. N.^5. stella, decl., 41. Stem building, 25. N. Stems, defined, 24; classified, 229; how formed from root, 26, 230–232; how found in nouns, 37. a; ā-stems, decl. I, 40; adjs., 110; o-stems, decl. II, 45; adjs. 110; in decl. III, mute stems, 56–60; liquid and nasal stems, 61–64; i-stems, 65–69; mixed i-stems, 70–72; u-stems, decl. IV, 88, 89; in tu-, 94; of vb., 165. 1; present, perfect, and supine, 164. Pres. stem, how formed, 175, 176; perf. stem, 177; supine stem, 178. Tenses arranged by stems, synopsis, 180. stō, w. abl., 431. strigilis, decl., 76. b. 1. strix, decl., 71. 6. Structure of Latin sentences, 600, 601. struēs, decl., 78. 2. studeō, w. dat., 368. 3. suādeō, w. dat., 367. sub-, in comp., w. adjs., 267. d. 1, 291. c. N.^2; w. vbs., 267. a and d. N. sub, use, 220. c, 221. 22; in comps., w. dat., 370; of time, 424. e. subeō, w. acc., 370. b. Subject, 268; defined, 270; how expressed, 271 and a; modified, 276; vb. agrees w., 316; two or more subjs., 317; subj. omitted, 318; accusative, 459; in ind. disc., 580; position of subject, 596. Subject clauses (inf.), 452. 1; (subjv.), 566,, 567, 569, 571. b. Subjective gen., defined, 343. N.^1; use, 343. Subjunctive mood, 154. b; how used and translated, 157. b. ftn. 2; tenses how used, 162; vowel of pres. subjv., 179. a. 1, b. 1, c. 1, d. Classification of uses, 438; hortatory subjv., 439, 440; optative subjv., 441, 442; deliberative, 443, 444; potential subjv., 445, 446; subjv. of modesty, 447. 1; tenses of subjv., 480–485; dependent clauses, 481; subjv. in ind. disc., 580; in informal ind. disc., 592; of integral part, 593. subolēs, decl., 78. 2. Subordinate clauses, defined, 278. b; use, 519–593; in ind. disc., 579–593. Subordinate conjs., 223. b, 224. II. a–f. Substance, gen. of, 344; abl. of, 403. Substantive clauses, 560–572; nature and classes of, 560 (cf. 561, 562); clauses of

.9īn purpose, 563–566; of result, 567–571; indic. w. quod, 572; indirect questions, 573–576; adj. w. subst. clauses, 289. d; inf. clauses, 452. Substantive use of adjs., 288; of possessive prons., 302. d. Substantive verb (esse), 272, 284. b. subter, use, 220. c, 221. 23. suētus, w. inf., 460. b. Suffixes, 232; primary, list of, 233, 234; significant, 235–255. suī, decl., 144. b; use, 299, 300; w. gen. of gerund, 504. c. sum, conj., 170; as copula, 284; as substantive verb, id. b; omitted, 319. b; w. dat. of possession, 373; position, 598. c, j. summus, form, 130. a. ftn. 2; (top of), 293. sunt quī, 535. a. suovetaurīlia, 265. 1. supellēx, decl., 79. c. super, use, 220. c, 221. 24; in comps., 267. a; in comps., w. dat., 370. supera, defect., 111. b (cf. 130. a. N.^2); comp., 130. b; superī, id. superior, compar., 130. b. Superlative, suffix, 124. ftn.; in -rimus, 125; of adjs. in -lis, 126; w. maximē, 128; takes gend. of partitive, 286. b. N.; of eminence, 291. b; w. quam, vel, or ūnus, id. c; denoting order, succession, 293; w. quisque, 313. b. superstes, decl., 121. a. 4. Supine, noun of decl. IV, 94. b, 159. b; stem, 164. 3; formation, 178, 179. a–d (cf. 164. ftn.); irregular forms of, conj. I, 209; conj. II, 210; allied with forms in -tor, 236. a. N.^1; Supine in -um, use of, 509; in -ū, 510; as abl. of specification, 510. N.^1. supplex, decl., 121. b. 1. supplicō, w. dat., 368. 3. suprā, use, 220. a, 221. 25. -sūra, noun ending, 238. b. Surds, 3. -suriō, vbs. in, 263. 4. -sus, phonetic form of -tus, 94; noun ending, 238. b. sūs, decl., 79 and a. suus, use, 299. Swearing, vbs. of, constr., 388. d, 580. c. Syllables, rules for division of, 7; open etc., id. N.^2; long and short, 603. e, j and notes. Synæresis, 603. c. N., f. N.^4, 642. Synalœpha, 612. e. N., 642. Synchysis, 598. h, 641. Syncope, 640. Synecdoche, defined, 641. Synecdochical acc., 397. b.

.9īn Synesis, 280. a; in gend. and number, 286. b; in sequence of tenses, 485. i. Synizesis, 603. c. N., 642. Synopsis of tenses (amō), 180; of impersonal vbs., 207. Syntactic compounds, 267. SYNTAX, 268–601; historical development of, 268. Important rules of Syntax, 594. T changed to s, 15. 5, 178; t preceding stem-vowel of vb., 176. b. 1; t- (s-), supine stem-ending, 178, 179. a. 2, b. 2, c. 2, d. taedet, impersonal, 208. b; constr., 354. b, c and N. taeter, decl., 112. a. Taking away, vbs., of, 381. Talent, value of, 637. tālis, 151. i, 152. tālis ut etc., 537. N.^2. tam, correl. w. quam, 323. g; correl. w. ut, 537. N.^2. tamen, as correl., 527. c; position of, 324. j. tametsī, concessive use, 527. c and N.^1. tamquam, in conditional clauses, 524; w. primary tenses, id. N.^1. tandem, in questions, 333. a and N. tantī, gen. of value, 417 and c; tantī est ut, 568. tantō following quantō, 414. a. tantum, w. subj. of proviso, 528. tantum abest ut, 571. b. tantus, 151. i, 152; tantus ut, 537. N.^2. -tās, -tia, noun endings, 241. Taste, vbs. of, w. acc., 390. a. -te (enclitic), 143. d and N. Teaching, vbs. of (two accs.), 396. tegō, conj., 186. Telling, vbs. of, constr., 459. Temporal clauses, defined, 279. b, 541–556; as protasis, 542; w. postquam etc., 543; w. cum, 544–549; w. antequam and priusquam, 550, 551; w. dum, dōnec, quoad, 552–556; replaced by abl. abs., 420. Temporal numerals, 139. b; conjunctions, 224. II. d. tempus est abīre, 504. N.^2. Tendency, adjs. denoting, 251. tener, decl., 111. a. TENSES, 154. c; of passive voice, 156; of participles, 158; classification, meaning, and use, 160–162; of the ind., 160, 161; of the subjv., 162; endings, 166; of completed action, formation of, 179. f, g; synopsis of, 180. TENSES, Syntax, 464–486; classified, 464; of ind., 465–479; Present tense, 465–459; Imperfect, 470, 471; Future, 472; of Completed action, 473–478; Epistolary

.9īn tenses, 479; of subjv., 480, 481; sequence of, 482–485; tenses of the inf., 486; tense emphatic, 598. d. (3); tenses of inf. in ind. disc., 584; tenses of subjv. in ind. disc., 585; affected by repraesentātiō, id. b and N.; in condition in ind. disc., 589. Notes on origin of syntax, 436, 464. tenus, constr., w. gen., 359. b; w. abl., 221. 26; position, 435, 599. d. ter- (tor-, tēr-, tōr-, tr-), primary suffix, 234. II. 15. -ter, adv. ending, 214. b, c. Terence, absque mē etc., 517. f; prosodial forms, 628. b, 629. teres, decl., 121. a. 3; compar., 131. b. -terior, ending, p. 56. ftn. 2. Terminations of inflection, meaning of, 21. b; terminations of nouns, 39; of verbs, 166. (See Endings.) -ternus, as adj. ending, 250. terrā marīque, 427. a. terrester, decl., 115. a. -terus, ending, p. 56. ftn. 2. Tetrameter, Iambic, 619. a. Than, how expressed, 406. That of, not expressed in Lat., 297. f. N. The, as correlative, 414. a and ftn. Thematic verbs, 174. 1. Thematic vowel , 174. 2. 1. Thesis and Arsis, 611. Thinking, vbs. of, constr. w. acc. and inf., 459. Third conj., of vbs., prin. parts, 173; pres. stem, how formed, 176; formation, id., 179. c; paradigm, 186; in -iō, paradigm, 188; list of vbs., w. principal parts, 211; derivation of vbs. in -uō, 261. Third declension, of nouns, 53–87; mute stems, 56–60; liquid stems, 61–64; i-stems, 65–78; pure i-stems, 66–69; mixed i-stems, 70–78; peculiar forms, 79; loc., 80; Greek nouns, 81–83; rules of gend., 84–87. Though, see Although. Thought, considered as result, 571. c. Threatening, vbs. of, 367, 580. c. ti-, primary suffix, 234. II. 2. -tia (-tiēs), noun ending, 241. -ticus, adj. ending, 247. tigris, decl., 82. -tilis, adj. ending, 252. -tim, advs. in, 75. a. 3. 215. 2. Time (see Temporal Clauses), 465 ff., 481, 545, 546. Time, abl. abs. to denote, 419, 420. 1; time when, 423; duration of time, 424. b; time during or within which, w. ordinal, id. c; distance of time, id. f; corresponding to Eng. place, id. d. Time, advs. of, 217. b. Time, mode of reckoning, 630

.9īn timeō, w. dat. or acc., 367. c; w. subjv., 564. -timus, adj. ending, 130. a. ftn. 2, 250. -tiō, noun ending, 233. 2, 238. b. -tiō (-siō), -tūra, -tūs (-tūtis), noun endings, 238. b. -tium, noun ending, 241. b. N. -tīvus, verbal adj. ending, 251. to- (tā-), primary suffix, 234. II. 1. -tō, -itō, intensive or iterative vbs. in, 263. 2. Too ... to, 535. c. N. -tor (-sor), -trīx, nouns of agency in, 236. a; used as adjs., -321. c. -tōria, noun ending, 254. 4. -tōrium, noun ending, 233. 2, 254. 5. -tōrius, adj. ending, 233. 2; as noun ending, 250. a. tot, indeclinable, 122. b; correl., 152. totidem, indeclinable, 122. b. tōtus, decl., 113; nouns w., in abl. without prep. (place where), 429. 2. Towns, names of, gend., 32 and a, 48. Exc.; names of towns in -e, decl., 76. N.^2; locative of, 427. 3; as place from which, id. 1; as place to which, id. 2. tr-, stems in (pater etc.), 61. 4. trāiciō, constr., 395. N.^1, 3; trāiectus lōra, id. N.^3. trāns, 220. a; use, 221. 27; comps. of, w. acc., 388. b; w. two accs., 395. Transitive verbs, 273. 1, 274; absolute use, 273. N.^2; how translated, 274. b; w. dat., 362. Transposition of vowels, 177. a. N. Trees, names of, gend., 32. trēs, decl., 134. b. tri-, stem-ending of nouns, 66; of adjs., 115. a. Tribe, abl. of, 403. a. N.^3. Tribrach, 609. a. 3. tribūlis, decl., 76. a. 2. tribus, gend., 90. Exc.; decl., 92. c. tridēns, decl., 76. b. 2. Trimeter, Iambic, 618. Triptotes, 103. d. trirēmis, decl., 76. b. 2. -tris, adj. ending, 250. triumphō, w. abl., 404. a. -trīx, see -tor. tro-, primary suffix, 234. 16. -trō, advs. in, 215. 4. Trochaic verse, 613, 620. Trochee, 609. a. 1; irrational, id. e, 623 and N. -trum, noun ending, 240. Trusting, vbs. of, constr., 367. tu-, primary suffix, 234. II. 3. -tū, -sū, supine endings, 159. b. tū, decl., 143 (see tūte, tūtimet). -tūdō, -tūs, noun endings, 241.

.9īn tulī (tetulī), 200; derivation, id. ftn. 2; quantity, 605. Exc. -tum, -sum, supine endings, 159. b. tum, tunc, meaning, 217. b; correl. w. cum, 323. g. tum . . . tum, 323. f. -tūra, -tūs, noun ending, 238. b. -turiō, desiderative vbs. in, 263. 4. -turnus, adj. ending, 250. -turris, decl., 67 (cf. 75. b). -tus, adj. ending, 246; noun ending, 94, 241. -tus, adv. ending, 215. 6. tussis, decl., 75. a. 2. tūte, 143. d; tūtimet, id. Two accusatives, 391. Two datives, 382. 1. U (v), as consonant, 5; after g, q, s, id. N.^2; not to follow u or v, 6. a, b; u for e in conj. III, 179. c. 1. u-, primary suffix, 234. I. 3. u-stems, of nouns, decl. III, 79 and a; decl. IV, 88; of vbs., 174, 176. d, 259. 3. ūber, decl., 119. ubi, derivation, 215. 5; in temporal clauses, 542, 543. -ubus, in dat. and abl. plur., decl. IV, 92. c. -uis (-uos), in gen., decl. IV, 92. e. -ūlis, adj. ending, 248. ūllus, decl., 113; use, 311, 312. ulterior, compar., 130. a. ultrā, 220. a; use, 221. 28; following noun, 435. -ulus, diminutive ending, 243; verbal adj. ending, 251. -um for -ārum, 43. d; for -ōrum, 49. d; -um in -gen. plur. of personal prons., 295. b; -um for -ium, decl. III, -78; in gen. plur. of adjs., 121. b; for -uum, decl. IV, -92. b. Undertaking, vbs. of, w. gerundive, 500. 4. ūnt-, stem-ending, 83. e. ūnus, decl., 113; meaning, 134. a; w. superl., 291. c. ūnus quī, w. subjv., 535. b. ūnus quisque, decl., 151. g; use, 313. uo-, suffix, see vo-. -uō, vbs. in, 261. -uos, see -uis. -ur, nouns in, 87. urbs, decl., 72; use in relations of place, 428. b. Urging, vbs. of, with ut, 563. -uriō, desiderative vbs. in, 263. 4. -urnus, adj. ending, 250. -ūrus, fut. part. in, 158. b, 498; w. fuī, 498. b, -517. d; in ind. questions, 575. a; -ūrus fuisse, in -ind. disc., 589. b. 3. -us, nom. ending, in decl. II, 46; -us for -er in Greek nouns, decl. II, -52. b; -us, nom.

.9īn ending in decl. III, 63. Exc. 2; -gend., 87; decl. IV, 88; gend., 90; neut. ending, 238. a. -ūs, Greek nom. ending, 83. e. Use, adjs. of, constr., 385. a. ūsque, w. acc., 432. b. ūsus (need), w. abl., 411. ut (utī), correlative w. ita, sīc, 323. g; to denote concession, 440, 527. a; ut (as) w. ind. equiv. to concession, 527. f; w. optative subjv., 442. a; used elliptically in exclamations, 462. a; in clauses of purpose, 531; ut nē, id., 563. e. N.^2; ???ūt nōn, 531. 1. N.^2; of result, 537; ut ???nōn etc., 538; ut temporal, 542, 543; vbs. foll. by clauses w. ut, 563, 568; omission after certain vbs., 565 and notes, 569. 2. N.^2; w. vbs. of fearing, 564 and N. ut, utpote, quippe, w. relative clause, 535. e. N.^1; w. cum, 549. N.^1. ut prīmum, 543. ut semel, 543. ut sī, constr., 524. ūter, decl., 66. uterque, form and decl., 15???. g; use, 313; constr. in agreement and as partitive, 346. d. ūtilis, w. dat. of gerund etc., 505. a. utinam, w. subjv. of wish, 442. ūtor etc., w. abl., 410; w. acc., id. a. N.^1; gerundive use of, 500. 3, 503. N.^2. utpote quī, 535. e. N.^1. utrum . . . an, 335 and d. -ūtus, adj. ending, 246. -uus, verbal adj. ending, 251. V (u), 1. b, 5 and N.^1; suffix of perf., 177. a, 179. a.2, b. 2, d; suppressed in perf., 181; list of vbs. in conj. III w. v in perf., 211. c; v often om. in perf. of eō and its comps., 203. b. vafer, decl., 112. a; compar., 131. a. valdē, use, 291. c. N.^1; valdē quam, 575. d. Value, gen. of indefinite, 417. Value, measures of, 632–638. vannus, gend., 48. Exc. vāpulō, neutral passive, 192. b. Variable nouns, 104–106 (cf. 98. c, d); adjs., 122. a. Variations, see Phonetic Variations. Variations of spelling, 6. văs, decl., 103. g. 2. vās, decl., 79. e, 105. b. vātēs, decl., 78. 1. -ve, vel, use, 324. e, 335. d. N. vel (see -ve), w. superl., 291. c. Velars, p. 2. ftn. 3. velim, vellem, subjv. of modesty, 447. 1. N. velim, vellem, w. subjv. ( ōpt.), 442. b, ( īmv.), 449. c. velut, velut sī, 524.

.9īn vēneō (vēnum eō), 192. b, 428. i. vēnerat āderat, 476. Verba sentiendī et dēclārandī, 397. e; 459, 579; passive use of, 582; in poets and later writers, id. N. Verbal adjs., 251–253; in -āx, w. gen., 349. c. Verbal nouns w. dat., 367. d. Verbal nouns and adjs. w. reflexive, 301. d. Verbal roots, 228. 1. VERBS, defined, 20. d; inflection, 153, 154; noun and adj. forms of, 155; signification of forms, 156–162; personal endings, 163; the three stems, 164; forms of the vb., 164–166 (notes on origin and hist. of vb. forms, 164. ftn., 168, 169); table of endings, 166; influence of imitation, 169. ftn.; regular vbs., 171–189; the four conjugations, 171–173; prin. parts of, 172; mixed vbs., 173. a; deponents, 190, 191; semi-deponents, 192; periphrastic forms, 193–196; irregular vbs., 197–204; defective, 205, 206; impersonal, 207, 208. Classified lists of vbs., 209–212. Derivation of vbs., 256–263; comp. vbs., 267; vowels in comp. vbs., id. a. N.^2. Index of vbs., pp. 437 ff. VERBS, Syntax. Subject implied in ending, 271. a; rules of agreement, 316–319; vb. omitted, 319; rules of syntax, 437–593. Cases w. vbs., see under Accusative etc. Position of vb., 596, 598. d, j. (See under the names of the Moods etc.) vereor, w. gen., 357. b. 1; w. subjv., 564. veritus, as pres. part., 491. vērō, 324. d, j; in answers, 336. a. 1; position of, 599. b. Verse, 612. Versification, 612–629; forms of verse, 613. versus, position of, 599. d. vertō, constr., 417. b. verū, gend., 91. vērum or vērō, use, 324. d, j. vescor, w. abl., 410; w. acc., id. a. N.^1; gerundive, 500. 3, 503. N.^2. vesper, decl., 50. b. vesperī (loc.), 50. b, 427. a. vester, decl., 112. a, 145. vestrī as obj. gen., 143. c, 295. b. vestrum as part. gen., 143. b, 295. b (cf. N.^2). vetō, w. acc. and inf., 563. a. vetus, decl., 119, 121. d; compar., 125. viā, abl. of manner, 412. b. vicem, adverbial use of, 397. a. vīcīnus, w. gen., 385. c. vicis, decl., 103. h. 1.

.9īn vidēlicet, derivation, 216. videō ut, 563. videor, w. dat., 375. b. vīn (v́īsne), 13. N. vir, decl., 47, 50. b. virgō, decl., 62. vīrus, gender of, 48. a. vīs, stem, 71. 6; decl., 79. viscera, 101. N.^1. vīsō, 263. 4. N. vo- (vā-), primary suffix, 234. II. 8. vōcalis, decl., 76. b. 2. VOCATIVE, defined, 35. f; form, 38. a; in -ī of nouns in -ius, decl. II, 49. c; of Greek nouns, id. c. N.; of adjs. in -ius, 110. a. Syntax, 340. Voices, 154. a, 156; middle voice, id. a. N., 163. ftn. 2, 190. e. volō and comps., conj., 199; part. of, w. dat. of the person judging, 378. N.; w. inf., 456 and N.; w. perf. act. inf. in prohibitions, 486. c; w. perf. part., 486. d and N., 497. c. N.; w. subjv. or inf., 563. b. volucer, decl., 115. a. volucris, decl., 78. -volus, adj. in, comp., 127. vōs, 143 and a. voster etc., see vester. vōtī damnātus, 352. a. Vowel changes, 15. 1–3; vowel variations, 17. Vowel roots of verbs, 179. a–c. Vowel stems of verbs, 259–262. Vowel suffixes (primary), 234. I. Vowels, 1; pronunciation, 8; long and short, 10; contraction, 15. 3; quantity of final vowels in case-endings, 38. g; vowel modified in noun stems, decl. III, 56. a; lengthened in root, 177. d,

.9īn 231. b; list of vbs. w. vowel lengthening in perf., conj. III, 211. e. vulgus (volgus), gend., 48. a. -vus, verbal adj. ending, 251. W, not in Latin alphabet, 1; sound of, 1. b. N. Want, words of, w. abl., 401; w. gen., 356. Way by which (abl.), 429. a. Weight, measures of, 637. Whole, gen. of, 346; numbers expressing the whole, id. e. Wills, fut. imv. in, 449. 2. Winds, gender of names of, 31. Wish, expressed by subjv., 441; as a condition, 521. b; wish in informal ind. disc., 592. 1. Wishing, vbs. of, w. inf., 486. d (cf. 457); w. subst. clause of purpose, 563. b; w. acc. and inf., id. Without, w. verbal noun, 496. N.???^3. Women, names of, 108. b and ftn. Words and Forms, 1–267. Words, formation of, 227–267; arrangement of, 595–601. Would (Eng. auxiliary), how expressed in Lat., 157. b. X, nom. ending, 56; gend., 86; x from s, in vbs., 211. a. Y, of Greek origin, 1. N.^1. Year, 630; months of, 630, 631; date, 424. g. -y -, suffix, 174. Yes, in Latin, 336. yo- (yā-), primary suffix, 234. II. 11. -ys, nom. ending, 82; quantity, 604. i. Z, of Greek origin, 1. a. N.

.5in LIST OF AUTHORS CITED

LATIN AUTHORS AND THEIR WORKS

CITED IN THIS BOOK

NOTE.—In the citations the names Cæsar, Cicero, Sallust (with Iugurtha), and Virgil are not generally given. Thus, ``B. G.'' refers to Cæsar's Bellum Gallicum; ``Fam.'' to Cicero's letters ad Familiares; ``Iug.'' to Sallust's Iugurtha; ``Aen.'' to Virgil's Æneid, etc.
.5em minus.17em .5em plus.5em minus.2em =1em =1 = =1em =1

=1.25in Ap., Apuleius (A.D. 125–?): Met., Metamorphoses. —, B. Afr., Bellum Africum. Cæsar (B.C. 100–44): B. C., Bellum Civile. B. G., Bellum Gallicum. Cato (B.C. 234–149): de M., de Moribus. R. R., de Re Rustica. Catull., Catullus (B.C. 87–54). Cic., Cicero (B.C. 106–43): Acad., Academica. Ad Her., [ad Herennium]. Arch., pro Archia. Att., ad Atticum. Balb., pro Balbo. Brut., Brutus de Claris Oratoribus. Caec., pro Caecina. Caecil., Divinatio in Caecilium. Cael., pro M. Caelio. Cat., in Catilinam. Cat. M., Cato Maior (de Senectute). Clu., pro Cluentio. Deiot., pro Deiotaro. De Or., de Oratore. Div., de Divinatione. Dom., pro Domo Sua. Fam., ad Familiares. Fat., de Fato. Fin., de Finibus. Flacc., pro Flacco. Font., pro M. Fonteio. Har. Resp., de Haruspicum Responsis. Inv., de Inventione
Rhetorica.

=1.25in Cic. Lael., Laelius (de Amicitia). Leg. Agr., de Lege Agraria. Legg., de Legibus. Lig., pro Ligario. Manil., pro Lege Manilia. Marc., pro Marcello. Mil., pro Milone. Mur., pro Murena. N. D., de Natura Deorum. Off., de Officiis. Or., Orator. Par., Paradoxa. Part. Or., de Partitione Oratoria. Phil., Philippicae. Planc., pro Plancio. Pison., in Pisonem. Prov. Cons., de Provinciis
Consularibus. Q. Fr., ad Q. Fratrem. Quinct., pro Quinctio. Rabir., pro Rabirio. Rab. Post., pro Rabirio Postumo. Rep., de Re Publica. Rosc. Am., pro Roscio Amerino. Rosc. Com., pro Roscio Comoedo. Scaur., pro Scauro. Sest., pro Sestio. Sull., pro Sulla. Tim., Timaeus (de
Universo). Top., Topica. Tull., pro Tullio. Tusc., Tusculanae
Disputationes. Vat., in Vatinium.

=1.25in Cic. Verr., in Verrem. Claud., Claudianus (abt.
A.D. 400): iv C. H., de Quarto Consulatu Honorii. Enn., Ennius (B.C. 239–169). Gell., A. Gellius (d. A.D. 175). Hirtius (d. B.C. 43): ? B. Al., Bellum Alexandrinum. Hor., Horace (B.C. 65–8): A. P., de Arte Poetica. C. S., Carmen Saeculare. Ep., Epistles. Epod. Epodes. Od. Odes. S. Satires. Iust., Justinus (abt. A.D. 150). Iuv., Juvenal (abt. A.D. 60–140). Liv., Livy (B.C. 59–A.D. 17). Lucr., Lucretius (B.C. 96–55). Mart., Martial (A.D. 43–? 104): Ep., Epigrams. Nep., Nepos (B.C. 99–24): Ages., Agesilaus. Alc., Alcibiades. Att., Atticus. Dat., Datames. Dion, Dion. Epam., Epaminondas Eum., Eumenes. Hann., Hannibal. Milt., Miltiades. Paus., Pausanias. Them., Themistodes. Timoth., Timotheus.

LIST OF AUTHORS CITED

=1.25in Ov., Ovid (B.C. 43–A.D. 17): A. A., Ars Amatoria. F., Fasti. H., Heroides. M., Metamorphoses. Pont., Epistulae ex
Ponto. Trist., Tristia. Pers., Persius (A.D. 34–62): Sat., Satires. Phaed., Phaedrus (abt. A.D. 40). Pl., Plautus (B.C. 254–184): Am., Amphitruo. Asin., Asinaria. Aul., Aulularia. Bac., Bacchides. Capt., Captivi. Cist., Cistellaria. Curc., Curculio. Epid., Epidicus. Men., Menaechmi. Merc., Mercator. Mil., Miles Gloriosus. Most., Mostellaria. Pers., Persa. Poen., Poenulus. Ps., Pseudolus. Rud., Rudens. Stich., Stichus. Trin., Trinummus. Truc., Truculentus.

=1.25in Plin., Pliny, senior (A.D. 23–79): H. N., Historia Naturalis. Plin., Pliny, junior (A.D. 62–113): Ep., Epistles. Prop., Propertius (B.C. 49–15). Pub. Syr., Publilius Syrus (abt. B.C. 44). Q. C., Q. Curtius (abt. A.D. 50). Quint., Quintilian (abt. A.D. 35–95). Sall., Sallust (B.C. 86–34): Cat., Catilina. Ep. Mith., Epistula Mithridatis. Iug., Iugurtha. —–, S. C. de Bac., Senatus Consultum de Bacchanalibus (—–B.C. 186). Sen., Seneca (B.C. 4–A.D. 65): Dial., Dialogues. Ep., Epistles. Herc. Fur., Hercules Furens. Herc. Oet., Hercules Oetaeus. Med., Medea.

=1.25in Sen. Q. N., Quaestiones Naturales. Sil., Silius Italicus (abt. A.D. 25–101). Suet., Suetonius (abt. A.D. 75–160): Aug., Augustus. Dom., Domitianus. Galb., Galba. Tac., Tacitus (abt. A.D. 55–120): Agr., Agricola. Ann., Annales. H., Historiae. Ter., Terence (d. B.C. 159): Ad., Adelphi. And., Andria. Eun., Eunuchus. Haut., Hautontimorumenos. Hec., Hecyra. Ph., Phormio. Val., Valerius Maximus (abt. A.D. 26). Varr., Varro (B.C. 116–27): R. R., de Re Rustica. Vell., Velleius Paterculus (abt. B.C. 19–A.D. 31). Verg., Virgil (B.C. 70–19) Aen., Æneid. Ecl., Eclogues. Georg., Georgics.

Footnotes

¹Strictly a labio-dental, pronounced with the under lip touching the upper teeth.

²The aspirates are almost wholly confined to words borrowed from the Greek. In early Latin such borrowed sounds lost their aspiration and became simply p, t, c.

³Palatals are often classed as (1) velars, pronounced with the tongue touching or rising toward the soft palate (in the back of the mouth), and (2) palatals, in which the tongue touches or rises toward the hard palate (farther forward in the mouth). Compare the initial consonants in key and cool, whispering the two words, and it will be observed that before e and i the k is sounded farther forward in the mouth than before a, o or u.

⁴Compare the English word Indian as pronounced in two syllables or in three.

⁵In such words it is possible that the preceding consonant was labialized and that no distinct and separate consonant u was heard.

⁶The spelling quum is very late and without authority.

⁷The Penult is the last syllable but one; the Antepenult, the last but two.

⁸A similar change can be seen in English: as, were (cf. was), lorn (cf. lose).

⁹Really for †traghsī. The h of trahō represents an older palatal sound (see § 19).

¹⁰Really for †traghtum. These are cases of partial assimilation (cf. 6, above).

¹¹This variation was not without regularity, but was confined within definite limits.

¹²In Greek, however, it is more extensively preserved.

¹³The Indo-European parent speech had among its consonants voiced aspirates (bh, dh, gh). All these suffered change in Latin, the most important results being, for bh, Latin f, b (English has b, v, or f); for dh, Latin f, b, d (English has d); for gh, Latin h, g (English has y, g). The other mutes suffered in Latin much less change, while in English, as in the other Germanic languages, they have all changed considerably in accordance with what has been called Grimm's law for the shifting of mutes.

¹⁴The th in father is a late development. The older form fader seems to show an exception to the rule that English th corresponds to Latin t. The primitive Germanic form was doubtless in accordance with this rule, but, on account of the position of the accent, which in Germanic was not originally on the first syllable in this word, the consonant underwent a secondary change to d.

¹⁵But to the group st of Latin corresponds also to English st; as in Latin stō, English stand.

¹⁶The only proper inflections of verbs are those of the personal endings; and the changes here referred to are strictly changes of stem, but have become a part of the system of inflections.

¹⁷Another exception is the imperative second person singular in -e (as, rege).

¹⁸For example, the root STA is found in the Sanskrit tishthāmi, Greek ί̔στημι, Latin sistere and stāre, German stehen, and English stand.

¹⁹These suffixes are Indo-European stem-endings.

²⁰For ancient, rare, and Greek forms (which are here omitted), see under the several declensions.

²¹ Scaevola is really a feminine adjective, used as a noun, meaning little left hand; but, being used as the name of a man (originally a nickname), it became masculine. Original genders are often thus changed by a change in the sense of a noun.

²²Compare the English chamber from French chambre.

²³Compare Greek ἀγρόσ, which shows the original ο of the stem

²⁴By so-called Ablaut (see § 17. a).

²⁵The genitive in -iī occurs once in Vergil, and constantly in Ovid, but was probably unknown to Cicero.

²⁶These differences depend in part upon special phonetic laws, in accordance with which vowels in weakly accented or unaccented syllables are variously modified, and in part upon the influence of analogy.

²⁷These, no doubt, had originally ter- in the stem, but this had become weakened to tr- in some of the cases even in the parent speech. In Latin only the nominative and vocative singular show the e. But cf. Māspitris and Māspiteris (Mā[r]s-piter), quoted by Priscan as old forms.

²⁸These were originally s-stems (cf. § 15. 4).

²⁹I.e. having the same number of syllables in the nominative and genitive singular.

³⁰Such are animal, bacchānal, bidental, capital, cervīcal, cubital, lupercal, minūtal, puteal, quadrantal, toral, tribūnal, vectīgal; calcar, cochlear, exemplar, lacūnar, laquear, lūcar, lūminar, lupānar, palear, pulvīnar, torcular. Cf. the plurals dentālia, frontālia, genuālia, spōnsālia; altāria, plantāria, speculāria, tālāria; also many names of festivals, as, Sāturnālia.

³¹Exceptions are augurāle, collāre, fōcāle, nāvāle, penetrāle, rāmāle, scūtāle, tībiāle; alveāre, capillāre, cochleāre.

³²There is much variety in the practice of the ancients, some of these words having -ium, some -um, and some both.

³³These are acīnacēs, aedēs, alcēs, caedēs, cautēs, clādēs, compāgēs, contāgēs, famēs, fēlēs, fidēs (plural), indolēs, lābēs, luēs, mēlēs, mōlēs, nūbēs, palumbēs, prōlēs, prōpāgēs, pūbēs, sēdēs, saepēs, sordēs, strāgēs, struēs, subolēs, tābēs, torquēs, tudēs, vātēs, venēs veprēs, verrēs, vulpēs; aedēs has also nominative aedis.

³⁴Rarely clientum.

³⁵Also aetātium. Cf. § 71. 4.

³⁶An old, though not the original, ending (see p. 32, footnote 2).

³⁷Always in the formula aquā et īgnī interdīcī (§ 401).

³⁸The Indo-European ending of the nominative plural, - es (preserved in Greek consonant stems, as ό̓ρτυξ, ό̓ρτυγ-ες), contracts with a stem-vowel and gives -ēs in Latin i-declension (cf. the Greek plural ό̓εις). This -ēs was extended to consonant stems in Latin.

³⁹ Canis and iuvenis are really n-stems.

⁴⁰Also Iūpiter.

⁴¹The Indo-European locative singular ended in -ī, which became - e in Latin. Thus the Latin ablative in -ē is, historically considered, a locative. The Latin ablative -ī (from -īd) was an analogical formation (cf. -ā from -ād, -ō from -ōd), properly belonging to i-stems. With names of towns and a few other words, a locative function was ascribed to forms in -ī (as, Carthāginī), partly on the analogy of the real locative o-stems (as, Corinthī, § 49. a); but forms in - e also survived in this use. The plural -bus is properly dative or ablative, but in forms like Trallibus it has a locative function. Cf. Philippīs (§ 49. a), in which the ending -īs is, historically considered, either locative, or instrumental, or both, and Athēnīs (§ 43. c), in which the ending is formed on the analogy of o-stems.

⁴²Dative, hērōisin (once only).

⁴³Some nouns of doubtful or variable gender are omitted.

⁴⁴Many nouns in -ō (gen. -ōnis) are masculine by signification: as, gerō, carrier; restiō, ropemaker; and family names (originally nicknames): as, Cicerō, Nāsō. §§ 236. c, 255.

⁴⁵A few other neuters of this declension are mentioned by the ancient grammarian as occurring in certain cases.

⁴⁶The forms faciērum, speciērum, speciēbus, spērum, spēbus, are cited by grammarians, also spērēs, spēribus, and some of these occur in late authors.

⁴⁷Some early or late forms and other rarities are omitted.

⁴⁸The dative singular impetuī and the ablative plural impetibus occur once each.

⁴⁹The ablative plural ōribus is rare, the classical idiom being in ōre omnium, in everybodyś mouth, etc., not in ōribus omnium.

⁵⁰The genitive plural ossium is late; ossuum (from ossua, plural of a neuter u-stem) is early and late.

⁵¹An old nominative daps is cited.

⁵²That is, ``nouns of different inflections'' ( έ̔τεροσ, another, and κλίνω, to inflect).

⁵³That is, ``of different genders'' (έ̔τεροσ, another, and γένοσ, gender).

⁵⁴In early writers the regular plural.

⁵⁵In stating officially the full name of a Roman it was customary to include the praenōmina of the father, grandfather, and great-grandfather, together with the name of the tribe to which the individual belonged. Thus in an inscription we find M. TVLLIVS M. F. M. N. M. PR. COR. CICERO, i.e. Mārcus Tullius Mārcī fīlius Mārcī nepōs Mārcī pronepōs Cornēliā tribū Cicerō. The names of grandfather and great-grandfather as well as that of the tribe are usually omitted in literature. The name of a wife or daughter is usually accompanied by that of the husband or father in the genitive: as, Postumia Servī Sulpiciī (Suet. Iul. 50), Postumia, wife of Servius Sulpicius; Caecilia Metellī (Div. i. 104), Caecilia, daughter of Metellus.

⁵⁶But the forms of some are doubtful.

⁵⁷For details see § 121.

⁵⁸Stems in nt- omit t before the nominative -s.

⁵⁹Stems in nt- omit t before the nominative -s.

⁶⁰Given by grammarians, but not found.

⁶¹An ablative in -e is very rare.

⁶²Forms in -um sometimes occur in a few others.

⁶³The comparative suffix (earlier -iōs) is akin to the Greek -ίων, or the Sanskrit -iyans. That of the superlative (-issimus) is a double form of uncertain origin. It appears to contain the is- of the old suffix -is-to-s (seen in ή̔δ-ιστο-ς and English sweetest) and also the old -mo-s (seen in prī-mus, mini-mus, etc.). The endings -limus and -rimus are formed by assimilation (§ 15.6) from -simus. The comparative and superlative are really new stems, and are not strictly to be regarded as forms of inflection.

⁶⁴The old positive potis occurs in the sense of able, possible.

⁶⁵The forms in -trā and -terus were originally comparative (cf. alter), so that the comparatives in -terior are double comparatives. Īnferus and superus are comparatives of a still more primitive form (cf. the English comparative in -er). The superlatives in -timus (-tumus) are relics of old forms of comparison; those in -mus like īmus, summus, prīmus, are still more primitive. Forms like extrēmus are superlatives of a comparative. In fact, comparison has always been treated with an accumulation of endings, as children say furtherer and furtherest.

⁶⁶The Ordinals (except secundus, tertius, octāvus, nōnus) are formed by means of suffixes related to those used in the superlative and in part identical with them. Thus, decimus (compare the form īnfimus) may be regarded as the last of a series of ten; prīmus is a superlative of a stem akin to prō; the forms in -tus (quārtus, quīntus, sextus) may be compared with the corresponding Greek forms in -τοσ, and with superlatives in -ις-το-σ, while the others have the superlative ending -timus (changed to -simus). Of the exceptions, secundus is a participle of sequor; alter is a comparative form (compare -τερος in Greek), and nōnus is contracted from †novenos. The cardinal multiples of ten are compounds of -gint- `ten' (a fragment of a derivative from decem).

⁶⁷The form in -o is a remnant of the dual number, which was lost in Latin, but is found in cognate languages. So in ambō, both, which preserves -ō (cf. δύο and § 629. b).

⁶⁸Or, in poetry, bis mīlle hominēs, twice a thousand men.

⁶⁹Forms in -ns are often written without the n.

⁷⁰Also written vīciēns et semel or vīciēns semel, etc.

⁷¹These demonstratives are combinations of o- and i- stems, which are not clearly distinguishable.

⁷²The Infinitive is strictly the locative case of an abstract noun, expressing the action of the verb (§ 451).

⁷³The Participles are adjectives in inflection and meaning, but have the power of verbs in construction and in distinguishing time.

⁷⁴The Gerundive is also used as an adjective of necessity, duty, etc. (§ 158. d). In late use it became a Future Passive Participle.

⁷⁵Originally locative.

⁷⁶That is, verbs which have laid aside (dēpōnere) the passive meaning.

⁷⁷The Latin uses the subjunctive in many cases where we use the indicative; and we use a colorless auxiliary in many cases where the Latin employs a separate verb with more definite meaning. Thus, I may write is often not scrībam (subjunctive), but licet mihi scrībere; I can write is possum scrībere; I would write is scrībam, scrīberem, or scrībere velim (vellem); I should write, (if, etc.), scrīberem (sī) ..., or (implying duty) oportet mē scrībere.

⁷⁸Most of these seem to be fragments of old pronouns, whose signification is thus added to that of the verb-stem (cf. § 36). But the ending -minī in the second person plural of the passive is perhaps a remnant of the participial form found in the Greek -μενοσ, and has supplanted the proper form, which does not appear in Latin. The personal ending -nt is probably connected with the participial nt- (nominative -ns).

⁷⁹The Passive is an old Middle Voice, peculiar to the Italic and Celtic languages and of uncertain origin.

⁸⁰Of these terminations -ī is not a personal ending, but appears to represent Indo-European tense-sign -ai of the Perfect Middle. In -is-tī and -is-tis, -tī and -tis personal endings; for -is-, see § 169. c. N. In -i-t and -i-mus, -t and -mus are personal endings, and i is of uncertain origin. Both -ērunt and -ēre are also of doubtful origin but the former contains the personal ending -nt.

⁸¹The Perfect Passive and Future Active Participles and the Supine, though strictly noun-forms, each with its own suffix, agree in having the first letter of the suffix (t) the same and in suffering the same phonetic change (t to s, see § 15. 5). Hence these forms, along with several sets of derivatives (in -tor, -tūra, etc., see § 238. b. N.^1), were felt by the Romans as belonging to one system, and are conveniently associated with the Supine Stem. Thus, from pingō, we have pictum, pictus, pictūrus, pictor, pictūra; from rīdeō, rīsum (for †rīd-tum), rīsus (part.), rīsus (noun), rīsūrus, rīsiō, rīsor, rīsibilis.

⁸²The conjugation of a verb consists of separate formations from a root, gradually grouped together, systematized, and supplemented by new formations made on old lines to supply deficiencies. Some of the forms were inherited from the parent speech; others were developed in the course of the history of the Italic dialects or the Latin language itself.

⁸³The signs of mood and tense are often said to be inserted between the root (or verb-stem) and the personal ending. No such insertion is possible in a language developed like the Latin. All true verb-forms are the result, as shown above, of composition; that is, of adding to the root or the stem either personal endings or fully developed auxiliaries (themselves containing the personal terminations), or of imitation of such processes. Thus vidēbāmus is made by adding to vidē-, originally a significant word or a form conceived as such, a full verbal form †bāmus, not by inserting -bā- between vidē- and -mus (§ 168, b).

⁸⁴All translations of the Subjunctive are misleading, and hence none is given; see § 157. b.

⁸⁵Compare Sankrit sant, Greek ώ̓ν.

⁸⁶Old form.

⁸⁷Cf. λέγ-ε-τε, λέγ-ο-μεν; Doric λέγ-ο-ντι.

⁸⁸Cf. ἐς-τί, ἐς-τέ (see p. 83, note).

⁸⁹Most verbs of the First, Second, and Fourth Conjugations form the present stem by adding the suffix -ye/_o to a noun-stem. The ā of the First Conjugation is the stem-ending of the noun (as, plantā-re, from plantā-, stem of planta). The ē of the Second and the ī of the Fourth Conjugation are due to contraction of the short vowel of the noun-stem with the ending -ye/_o-. Thus albēre is from albe/_o-, stem of albus; fīnīre is from fīni-, stem of fīnis. Some verbs of these classes, however, come from roots ending in a vowel.

⁹⁰This is the so-called ``thematic vowel.''

⁹¹In these verbs the stem-ending added to the root is respectively -ne/_o-, -te/_o-, sce/_o-.

⁹²These are either old formations in -ye/_o- in which the y has disappeared after the u (as, statuō for †statu-yō) or later imitations of such forms.

⁹³In some of the verbs of this class the present stem was originally identical with the root; in others the ending -ye/_o- was added, but has been absorbed by contraction.

⁹⁴The v-perfect is a form of uncertain origin peculiar to the Latin.

⁹⁵The s-perfect is in origin an aorist. Thus, dīx-ī (for †dīcs-ī) corresponds to the Greek aorist έ̓-δειξ-α (for †έ̓-δεικς-α).

⁹⁶For these modifications of the supine stem, see § 15. 5, 6, 10.

⁹⁷The present stem is thus the verb-stem. For exceptions, see § 209. a.

⁹⁸The gerundive varies between -endus and -undus.

⁹⁹A few are formed from noun-stems, as fīnī-re (from fīni-s), and a few roots perhaps end in i; but these are not distinguishable in form.

¹⁰⁰For exceptions, see § 212. b.

¹⁰¹The stem-vowel ā- is lost before -ō, and in the Present Subjunctive becomes ē-.

¹⁰²The translation of the Subjunctive varies widely according to the construction. Hence no translation of this mood is given in the paradigms.

¹⁰³Fuī, fuistī, etc., are sometimes used instead of sum, es, etc.; so also fueram instead of eram and fuerō instead of erō. Similarly in the Perfect and Pluperfect Subjunctive fuerim, fueris, etc. are sometimes used instead of sim, sīs, etc., and fuissem instead of essem.

¹⁰⁴The stem-vowel ā- is lost before -or, and in the Present Subjunctive becomes ē-.

¹⁰⁵The translation of the Subjunctive varies widely according to the construction. Hence no translation of this mood is given in the paradigms.

¹⁰⁶See page 94, footnote 1.

¹⁰⁷See § 179. b. 1.

¹⁰⁸See footnote 1 on page 94.

¹⁰⁹The perfect stem in this conjugation is always formed from the root; tēx- is for tēg-s- (see § 15. 9).

¹¹⁰See § 179. c. 1.

¹¹¹See footnote 1 on page 94.

¹¹²See § 179. d.

¹¹³See footnote 1, p. 94.

¹¹⁴This is a practical working rule. The actual explanation of the forms of such verbs is not fully understood.

¹¹⁵These are athematic verbs, see § 174. 2.

¹¹⁶The forms potis sum, pote sum, etc. occur in early writers. Other early forms are potesse; possiem, -ēs, -et; poterint, potisit (for possit); potestur and possitur (used with a passive infinitive, cf. § 205. a).

¹¹⁷Potuī is from an obsolete †potēre.

¹¹⁸Vīs is from a different root.

¹¹⁹Vellem is for †vel-sēm, and velle for †vel-se (cf. es-se), the s being assimilated to the l preceding.

¹²⁰Ferō has two independent stems: fer- in the present system, and tul- (for tol-) in the perfect from TOL, root of tollō. The perfect tetulī occurs in Plautus. In the participle the root is weakened to tl-, lātum standing for †tlātum (cf. τλητός).

¹²¹ Ferre, ferrem, are for †fer-se, †fer-sēm (cf. es-se, es-sem), s being assimilated to preceding r; or ferre, ferrem, may be for †ferese, †feresēm (see § 15. 4).

¹²²See note 3, page 110.

¹²³Sustulī and sublātum also supply the perfect and participle of the verb tollō.

¹²⁴Sustulī and sublātum also supply the perfect and participle of the verb tollō.

¹²⁵In ēs etc. the e is long. In the corresponding forms of sum, e is short. The difference in quantity between edō and ēs etc. depends upon inherited vowel variation (§ 17. a).

¹²⁶Old forms are ēssūrus and supine ēssum.

¹²⁷Old forms are ēssūrus and supine ēssum

¹²⁸The root of eō is EI (weak form I). This ei becomes ī except before a, o, and u, where it becomes e (cf. eō, eam, eunt). The strong form of the root, ī, is shortened before a vowel or final -t; the weak form, i, appears in itum and itūrus.

¹²⁹The imperative is rarely found, and then only in early writers

¹³⁰Root AP (as in apīscor) with co(n-).

¹³¹Root OD, as in odium.

¹³²Root MEN, as in mēns.

¹³³The second singular ais with the interrogative -ne is often written ain.

¹³⁴An old imperfect aibam, aibās, etc. (dissyllabic) is sometimes found.

¹³⁵With impersonal verbs the word it is used in English, having usually no representative in Latin, though id, hōc, illud, are often used nearly in the same way.

¹³⁶Future Participle also in -ātūrus (either in the simple verb or in composition).

¹³⁷Future Participle also in -=at=urus (either in the simple verb or in composition).

¹³⁸Necō has regularly necāvī, necātum, except in composition.

¹³⁹And other compounds of -pleō.

¹⁴⁰Sometimes accersō, etc.

¹⁴¹The following compounds of legō have -lēxī: dīligō, intellegō, neglegō.

¹⁴²In this the perfect stem is the same as the verb-root, having lost the reduplication (§ 177. c. N.).

¹⁴³See footnote 3, page 124.

¹⁴⁴All these adverbs were originally case-forms of pronouns. The forms in -bi and -īc are locative, those in -ō and -ūc, -ā and -āc, ablative (see § 215); those in -inc are from -im (of uncertain origin) with the particle -ce added (thus illim, illin-c).

¹⁴⁵The case-form of these prepositions in -ter is doubtful.

¹⁴⁶For palam etc., see § 432.

¹⁴⁷Ab signifies direction from the object, but often towards the speaker; compare d=e, down from, and ex, out of.

¹⁴⁸Of originally meant from (cf. off).

¹⁴⁹Old participle of sequor.

¹⁵⁰Comparative of sub.

¹⁵¹Some of these have been included in the classification of adverbs. See also list of Correlatives, § 152.

¹⁵²For the distinction between Roots and Stems, see §§ 24, 25.

¹⁵³The difference in vowel-quantity in the same root (as D UC) depends on inherited variations (see § 17. a).

¹⁵⁴So conceived, but perhaps this termination was originally added to noun-stems.

¹⁵⁵The abstract meaning is put first.

¹⁵⁶Cf. volvendīs mēnsibus (Aen. i. 269), in the revolving months; cf. oriundī ab Sabīnīs (Liv. i. 17), sprung from the Sabines, where oriundī ōrtī.

¹⁵⁷Cf. § 163. footnote 1.

¹⁵⁸Probably an adjective with fābula, play, understood.

¹⁵⁹The type of all or most of the denominative formations in §§ 259-262 was inherited, but the process went on in the development of Latin as a separate language.

¹⁶⁰For -scō in primary formation, see § 176. b. 1.

¹⁶¹The second part generally has its usual inflection; but, as this kind of composition is in fact older than inflection, the compounded stem sometimes has an inflection of its own (as, cornicen, -cinis; lūcifer, -ferī; iūdex, -dicis), from stems not occurring in Latin. Especially do compound adjectives in Latin take the form of i-stems: as, animus, exanimis; nōrma, abnōrmis (see § 73). In composition, stems regularly have their uninflected form: as, īgni-spicium, divining by fire. But in o- and ā-stems the final vowel of the stem appears as i-, as in āli-pēs (from āla, stem ālā-); and i- is so common a termination of compounded stems, that it is often added to stems which do not properly have it: as, flōri-comus, flower-crowned (from flōs, flōr-is, and coma, hair).

¹⁶²Observe that the classes defined in a–e are not mutually exclusive, but that a single clause may belong to several of them at once. Thus a relative clause is usually subordinate, and may be at the same time temporal or conditional; and subordinate clauses may be coördinate with each other.

¹⁶³That is, it does not stant first in its clause.

¹⁶⁴As, in taking things one by one off a pile, each thing is uppermost when you take it.

¹⁶⁵For the derivation and classification of adverbs, see §§ 214—217.

¹⁶⁶For †num-ce; cf. tunc (for †tum-ce).

¹⁶⁷For the classification of conjunctions, see §§ 223, 224.

¹⁶⁸That is, they do not stand first in their clause.

¹⁶⁹For a list of Negative Particles, see § 217. e.

¹⁷⁰For a list of Interrogative Particles, see §217. d.

¹⁷¹Some of the endings, however, which in Latin are assigned to the dative and ablative are doubtless of locative or instrumental origin (see p. 34, footnote).

¹⁷²The -e vocative of the second declension is a form of the stem (§ 45. c).

¹⁷³Such are dōnō, impertiō, induō, exuō, adspergō, īnspergō, circumdō, and in poetry accingō, implicō, and similar verbs

¹⁷⁴These include, among others, the following: adversor, cēdō, crēdō, faveō, fīdō, īgnōscō, imperō, indulgeō, invideō, īrāscor, minitor, noceō, parcō, pāreō, placeō, resistō, serviō, studeō, suādeō (persuādeō), suscēnseō, temperō (obtemperō).

¹⁷⁵See the Lexicon under caveō, conveniō, cupiō, īnsistō, maneō, praevertō, recipiō, renūntiō, solvō, succēdō.

¹⁷⁶Such verbs are aggredior, adeō, antecēdō, anteeō, antegredior, conveniō, ineō, obeō, offendō, oppūgnō, praecēdō, subeō.

¹⁷⁷Datīvus commodī aut incommodī

¹⁷⁸Datīvus iūdicantis.

¹⁷⁹Compare ``I'll rhyme you so eight years together,''—As You Like It, iii. 2.

¹⁸⁰Datīvus ēthicus.

¹⁸¹Adjectives of this kind are accommodātis, aptus; amīcus, inimīcus, īnfestus, invīsus, molestus; idōneus, opportūnus, proprius; ūtilis, inūtilis; affīnis, fīnitimus, propinquus, vīcīnus; pār, dispār, similis, dissimilis; iūcundus, grātus; nōtus, īgnōtus, and others.

¹⁸²Such are aequālis, affīnis, aliēnus, amīcus, cōgnātus, commūnis, cōnsanguineus, contrārius, dispār, familiāris, fīnitimus, inimīcus, necessārius, pār, pecūliāris, propinquus, proprius (regularly genitive), sacer, similis, superstes, vīcīnus.

¹⁸³Compare armiger, armor-bearer, with arma gerere, to bear arms; fidicen, lyre-player, with fidibus canere, to (play on) sing to the lyre. Compare also istanc tāctiō (Plaut.) [act of] touching her, with istanc tangere, to touch her (§388. d. N.^2).

¹⁸⁴Perhaps not found in the active but cf. trāiecto fūne (Aen. v.488).

¹⁸⁵Thus the Ablative of Cause may be, at least in part, of Instrumental origin, and the Ablative Absolute appears to combine the Instrumental and the Locative.

¹⁸⁶As nātus, satus, ēditus, genitus, ortus, prōgnātus, generātus, crētus, creātus, oriundus.

¹⁸⁷The ablative with cōnsistere and continērī is probably locative in origin (cf. § 431.)

¹⁸⁸The cause, in the ablative, is originally source, as is shown by the use of ab, dē, ex; but when the accusative with ad, ob, is used, the idea of cause arises from nearness. Occasionally it is difficult to distinguish between cause and means (which is the old Instrumental case) or circumstance (which is either the Locative or the Instrumental).

¹⁸⁹Originally a mercantile use: cf. ob decem minās, for the price of ten minæ.

¹⁹⁰This is a branch of the Ablative of Separation. The object with which anything is compared is the starting-point from which we reckon. Thus, ``Cicero is eloquent'', but, starting from him, we come to Cato, who is ``more so than he.''

¹⁹¹These are abūtor, deūtor (very rare), dēfungor, dēfruor, perfruor, perfungor.

¹⁹²This construction is properly an instrumental one, in which opus and ūsus mean work and service, and the ablative expresses that with which the work is performed or the service rendered. The noun ūsus follows the analogy of the verb ūtor, and the ablative with opus est appears to be an extension of that with ūsus est.

¹⁹³In this phrase the is not the definite article but a pronominal adverb, being the Anglo-Saxon th&ymacr;, the instrumental case of the pronoun thæt, that. This pronoun is used both as relative (by which, by how much) and as demonstrative (by that, by so much). Thus the …the corresponds exactly to quō …eō.

¹⁹⁴It was originally instrumental and appears to have developed from accompaniment (§ 413) and manner (§ 412).

¹⁹⁵The Ablative Absolute is perhaps of instrumental origin. It is, however, sometimes explained as an outgrowth of the locative, and in any event certain locative constructions (of place and time) must have contributed to its development.

¹⁹⁶The present participle of esse, wanting in Latin (§ 170. b), is used in Sanskrit and Greek as in English.

¹⁹⁷Originally all these relations were expressed by the cases alone. The accusative, in one of its oldest functions, denoted the end of motion; the ablative, in its proper meaning of separation, denoted the place from which, and, in its locative function, the place where. The prepositions, originally adverbs, were afterwards added to define more exactly the direction of motion (as in to usward, toward us), and by long association became indispensible except as indicated below.

¹⁹⁸The Locative has in the singular of the first and second declensions the same form as the Genitive, in the plural and in the third declension the same form as the Dative or Ablative.

¹⁹⁹The English home in this construction is, like domum, an old accusative of the end of motion.

²⁰⁰Apparently the direction whence the sensuous impression comes.

²⁰¹For a list of Prepositions with their ordinary uses, see § 221.

²⁰²For the significations of the tense-endings, see §§ 168, 169.

²⁰³These modifications are of various kinds, each of which has had its own special development (cf. § 436). The subjunctive in Latin has also many idiomatic uses (as in clauses of Result and Time) where the English does not modify the verbal idea at all, but expresses it directly. In such cases the Latin merely takes a different view of the action and has developed the construction differently from the English.

²⁰⁴Many scholars regard the concessive subjunctive as a development of the Optative Subjunctive in a wish.

²⁰⁵The name Potential Subjunctive is not precisely descriptive, but is fixed in grammatical usage.

²⁰⁶In prohibitions the subjunctive with nē is hortatory; that with cavē is an object clause (cf. §§ 450. N. 2, 565. N. 1).

²⁰⁷The ending -ĕ (amāre, monēre, regere, audīre) was apparently locative, the ending -ī (amārī, monērī, regī, audīrī) apparently dative; but this difference of case had no significance for Latin syntax. The general Latin restriction of the ī-infinitives to the passive was not a primitive distinction, but grew up in the course of time.

²⁰⁸In these constructions the abstract idea expressed by the infinitive is represented as having some quality or belonging to some thing.

²⁰⁹This construction is elliptical; that is, the thought is quoted in Indirect Discourse, though no verb of saying etc. is expressed or even, perhaps, implied (compare the French dire que). Passages like hancine ego ad rem nātam miseram mē memorābō? (Plaut. Rud. 188) point to the origin of the construction.

²¹⁰Cf. dētestor, reminīscor, sciō, soleō.

²¹¹The term is sometimes extended to certain relations between the tenses of subordinate verbs in the indicative and those of the main verb. These relations do not differ in principle from those which we are considering; but for convenience the term Sequence of Tenses is in this book restricted to subjunctives, in accordance with the usual practice.

²¹²Volō, and less frequently nōlō, mālō, and cupiō.

²¹³For the Syntax of the Infinitive, see §§ 451 ff., 486.

²¹⁴Compare the participle in indirect discourse in Greek (Goodwin's Greek Grammar, § 1588); and the English `` 'T was at the royal feast for Persia won'' (Dryden), i.e. for the conquest of Persia.

²¹⁵The perfect with have, in modern languages of Latin stock, has grown out of this use of habeō.

²¹⁶Such verbs are accipiō, adnōtō, attribuō, condūcō, cūrō, dēnōtō, dēposcō, dō, dīvidō, dōnō, ēdīcō, ēdoceō, ferō, habeō, locō, mandō, obiciō, permittō, petō, pōnō, praebeō, prōpōnō, relinquō, rogō, suscipiō, trādō, voveō.

²¹⁷The gerundive construction is probably the original one.

²¹⁸Such are praeesse, operam dare, diem dīcere, locum capere.

²¹⁹Such are accommodātus, aptus, ineptus, bonus, habilis, idōneus, pār, ūtilis, inūtilis. But the accusative with ad is common with most of these (cf. § 385. a).

²²⁰In this use the ablative of the gerund is, in later writers nearly, and in mediæval writers entirely, equivalent to a present participle: as,— cum ūnā diērum FLENDŌ sēdisset, quīdam mīles generōsus iūxtā eam EQUITANDŌ vēnit (Gesta Romanorum, 66 [58]), as one day she sat weeping, a certain knight came riding by (compare § 507, fourth example). Hence come the Italian and Spanish forms of the present participle (as mandando, esperando), the true participial form becoming an adjective in those languages.

²²¹The only common supines in -ū are audîtū, dictū, factū, inventū, memorātū, nātū, vīsū. In classic use this supine is found in comparatively few verbs. It is never followed by an object-case.

²²²The futūrum in praeteritō is a tense future relatively to a time absolutely past. It denotes a future act transferred to the point of view of past time, and hence is naturally expressed by a past tense of the Subjunctive: thus dīxisset, he would have said = dictūrus fuit, he was about to say [but did not]. As that which looks towards the future from some point in the past has a natural limit in present time, such a tense (the imperfect subjunctive) came naturally to be used to express a present condition purely ideal, that is to say, contrary to fact.

²²³Compare potius dīceret, he should rather have said (§ 439. b).

²²⁴There are, however, some cases in which this implication does not arise: as,— deciēns centēna dedissēs, nīl erat in loculīs (Hor. S. i. 3. 15), if you'd given him a million, there was nothing in his coffers.

²²⁵``There was a certain lender which ought him five hundred pieces.'' — Tyndale's New Testament.

²²⁶In most English verbs the Preterite (or Past) Subjunctive is identical in form with the Preterite Indicative. Thus in such a sentence as if he loved his father, he would not say this, the verb loved is really a Preterite Subjunctive, though this does not appear from the inflection. In the verb to be, however, the Subjunctive were has been preserved and differs in form from the indicative was.

²²⁷Cf. the Greek forms corresponding to the various types of conditions:—
A. 1. εἰ πράσσει το~υτο, καλ~ως ἔχει. 2. εἰ ἔπρασσε το~υτο, καλ~ως ἔιχεν.
B. 1. ἐὰν πράσση| το~υτο, καλ~ως ἕξει. 2. ἐὰν πράσσοι το~υτο, καλ~ως ἕχοι.
C. 1. εἰ ἔπρασσε το~υτο, καλ~ως ἂν ε~ἰχεν. 2. εἰ ἔπραξε το~υτο, καλ~ως ἂν ἔσχεν.
D. 1. ἐάν τις κλέπτη|, κολάζεται. 2. ἐάν τις κλέπτοι, ἐκολάζετο.

²²⁸It often depends entirely upon the view of the writer at the moment, and not upon the nature of the condition, whether it shall be stated vividly or not; as in the proverbial Ì̀f the sky falls, we shall catch larks t́́he impossible condition is ironically put in the vivid form, to illustrate the absurdity of some other supposed condition stated by some one else.

²²⁹The implication of falsity, in this construction, is not inherent in the subjunctive; but comes from the transfer of a future condition to past time. Thus the time for the happening of the condition has, at the moment of writing, already passed; so that, if the condition remains a condition, it must be contrary to fact. So past forms of the indicative implying a future frequently take the place of the subjunctive in apodosis in this construction (see c, d. below, and § 511).

²³⁰Observe that all these expressions contain the idea of futurity (cf. p. 328, footnote). Thus, decet mē [hodiē] īre crās, means it is proper for me [to-day] to go to-morrow; and, decēbat mē [herī] īre hodiē, it was proper for me [yesterday] to go to-day, usually with the implication that I have not gone as I was bound to do.

²³¹As in the Greek ὃς ἂν, ὅταν, etc.; and in statutes in English, where the phrases if any person shall and whoever shall are used indifferently.

²³²With all temporal particles the Subjunctive is often found depending on some other principle of construction. (See Intermediate Clauses. § 591.)

²³³Such verbs or verbal phrases are id agō, ad id veniō, caveō (nē), cēnseō, cōgō, concēdō, cōnstituō, cūrō, dēcernō, ēdīcō, flāgitō, hortor, imperō, īnstō, mandō, metuō (nē). moneō, negōtium dō, operam dō, ōrō, persuādeō, petō, postulō, praecipiō, precor, prōnūntiō, quaerō, rogō, scīscō, timeō (nē), vereor (nē), videō, volō.

²³⁴In all these cases the clause is not strictly subject or object. The main verb originally conveyed a meaning sufficient in itself, and the result clause was merely complementary. This is seen by the frequent use of ita and the like with the main verb (ita accidit ut, etc.). In like manner purpose clauses are only apparently subject or object of the verb with which they are connected.

²³⁵Verbs and phrases taking an ut-clause of result as subject or object are accēdit, accidit, additur, altera est rēs, committō, cōnsequor, contingit, efficiō, ēvenit, faciō, fit, fierī potest, fore, impetrō, integrum est, mōs est, mūnus est, necesse est, prope est, rēctum est, relinquitur, reliquum est, restat, tantī est, tantum abest, and a few others.

²³⁶Cf. the Greek θαυμάζω εἰ.

²³⁷Such are: (1) knowing, sciō, cōgnōscō, compertum habeō, etc.; (2) thinking, putō, exīstimō, arbitror, etc.; (3) telling, dīcō, nūntiō, referō, polliceor, prōmittō, certiōrem faciō, etc.; (4) perceiving, sentiō, comperiō, videō, audiō, etc. So in general any word that denotes thought or mental and visual perception or their expression may govern the Indirect Discourse.

²³⁸Compare the Greek aorist infinitive after similar verbs.

²³⁹For various ways of expressing the Future Infinitive, see § 164. 3. c.

²⁴⁰See note on Indirect Discourse (§ 577).

²⁴¹The subjunctive in this use is of the same nature as the subjunctive in the main clause. A dependent clause in a clause of purpose is really a part of the purpose, as is seen from the use of should and other auxiliaries in English. In a result clause this is less clear, but the result construction is a branch of the characteristic (§ 534), to which category the dependent clause in this case evidently belongs when it takes the subjunctive.

²⁴²Across the Rhine: i.e. and so are perfect savages.

²⁴³So called from the Greek letter X (chi), on account of the criss-cross arrangement of the words. Thus, a b b a (see f below)

²⁴⁴Rarely dissyllabic cŭĭ (as Mart. i. 104. 22).

²⁴⁵The quantity of the stem-vowel may be seen in the genitive singular.

²⁴⁶The same thing occurs in modern poetry, and in modern music any unaccented syllables at the beginning are treated as an anacrusis, i.e. they make an incomplete measure before the first bar. This was not the case in ancient music. The ancients seem to have treated any unaccented syllable at the beginning as belonging to the following accented ones, so as to make with them a foot or measure. Thus it would seem that there was an original form of Indo-European poetry which was iambic in its structure, or which, at least, accented the second syllable rather than the first.

²⁴⁷Called diplasic, the two parts (Thesis and Arsis) being in the ratio of 2 to 1.

²⁴⁸Not found as a fundamental foot, but only as the resolution of a Trochee or Iambus.

²⁴⁹Called hemiolic, the two parts being in the ratio of 1 to 1 12, or of 2 to 3.

²⁵⁰It seems probable that both thesis and arsis of an irrational foot were affected by the necessity of preserving the rhythmical time of the foot.

²⁵¹The Thesis signifies properly the putting down(θέσισ, from τίθημι, put, place) of the foot in beating time, in the march or dance (``downward beat''), and the Arsis the raising (ά̓ρσις, from ἀείρω, raise) of the foot (``upward beat''). By the Latin grammarians these terms were made to mean, respectively, the ending and the beginning of a measure. By a misunderstanding which has prevailed till recently, since the time of Bentley, their true signification has been reversed. They will here be used in accordance with their ancient meaning, as has now become more common. This metrical accent, recurring at regular intervals of time, is what constitutes the essence of the rhythm of poetry as distinguished from prose, and should be constantly kept in mind. The error mentioned arose from applying to trochaic and dactylic verse a definition which was true only of iambic or anapæstic.

²⁵²The word Verse (versus) signifies a turning back, i.e. to begin again in like manner, as opposed to Prose (prōrsus or prōversus), which means straight ahead.

²⁵³This usage is comparatively rare, most cases where it appears to be found being caused by the retention of an originally long quantity.

²⁵⁴The practice of Elision is followed in Italian and French poetry, and is sometimes adopted in English, particularly in the older poets:— T' inveigle and invite th' unwary sense.Comus538. In early Latin poetry a final syllable ending in s often loses this letter even before a consonant (cf. § 15. 7):— seniō cōnfectu^s quiēscit.Enn. (Cat. M. 14). In reading it is usual entirely to suppress elided syllables. Strictly, however, they should be sounded lightly.

²⁵⁵Called pentameter by the old grammarians, who divided it, formally, into five feet

²⁵⁶The time of this pause, however, may be filled by the protraction of the preceding syllable:— - | - | || - | - | -

²⁵⁷The greater freedom of substitution in the comedy is due to the fact that the verse is regarded as made up of separate feet rather than of dipodies.

²⁵⁸Different Greek poets adopted fixed types in regard to the place of the dactyl and so a large number of verses arose, each following a strict law, which were imitated by the Romans as distinct metres.

²⁵⁹The figures refer to the foregoing list (§ 625).

²⁶⁰The two principal theories only are given. There are numerous variations, particularly of the second theory here stated.

²⁶¹Before the Latin language was used in literature, it had become much changed by the loss of final consonants and the shortening of final syllables under the influence of accent. In many cases this change was still in progress in the time of the early poets. This tendency was arrested by the study of grammar and by literature, but shows itself again in the Romance languages.

²⁶²Cf. ambō (also a dual, p. 59, footnote), in which the ō is retained because of the length of the first syllable.

²⁶³Scholars are not yet agreed upon the principle or the extent of this irregularity.

²⁶⁴The extent of this license is still a question among scholars; but in the present state of texts it must sometimes be allowed.

A.	1. εἰ πράσσει το~υτο, καλ~ως ἔχει.	2. εἰ ἔπρασσε το~υτο, καλ~ως ἔιχεν.
B.	1. ἐὰν πράσση\| το~υτο, καλ~ως ἕξει.	2. ἐὰν πράσσοι το~υτο, καλ~ως ἕχοι.
C.	1. εἰ ἔπρασσε το~υτο, καλ~ως ἂν ε~ἰχεν.	2. εἰ ἔπραξε το~υτο, καλ~ως ἂν ἔσχεν.
D.	1. ἐάν τις κλέπτη\|, κολάζεται.	2. ἐάν τις κλέπτοι, ἐκολάζετο.